(Nazrin)
Among the important aspects in understanding the worldview of Islam is that you need to understand the fact of God, man and nature as a whole as well as the relationship between these three elements in terms of their rights and their responsibilities.
The fact God s.w.t.
The fact God s.w.t. must be known based on information given by Allah through His revelation in the Qur'an nor al-Hadith. No one can also learn about God through other sources.
Based on His revelation, we know that God God is one and distinct from all creatures in the universe.
The Word of God s.w.t. which means:
Say (O Muhammad), He (Allah) God alone.
(Surah al-Ikhlas: 1)
His words again, which means:
There is nothing in common with him.
(Surah al-Ikhlas: 4)
God s.w.t. possesses all the attributes of perfection and glory of all deficiencies. God s.w.t. not the same as being in any way, but have in common with the character creation. Nevertheless, it is impossible God s.w.t. have any character flaws.
GOD created man and the universe. Because God is perfect, God created the universe perfectly. Because God is compassionate and merciful, God created the universe with love. Similarly, because of God's wisdom, God Almighty created the universe with a well-equipped and know the weaknesses, deficiencies, needs and strengths of the universe.
Thus, to preserve nature He created, God has lowered his rules to be complied with. For an intelligent creature like humans and jinns, Allah sent down His rules in the form of Islamic law and the laws of nature. While the creatures were mindless, like animals and plants, God down the laws of nature only.
To ensure a perfect life, all creatures must obey and adhere to the rules of God's creation in the form of Islamic law or the laws of nature. Man who disobeys comply with Islamic law and the laws of nature created by Allah swt will face destruction in this world and in the hereafter. Similarly, other creatures like animals and plants that do not adhere to the natural law of God's creation will also face the destruction of the world. This is because Allah is Aware of what is good and what is not good for creatures of His creation.
Essence
Human beings in the eyes of Islam is most glorious. Please check the table below which shows the wisdom of God created man.
Human wisdom made the best creatures in the world
1 That man realize himself that Allah swt create the perfect shape.
2 That man grateful for the blessings God's grace who has created the best scene.
3 Allow the human being in the earth to uphold Islam and environmental prosperity.
4 So that people submit to Allah's command in all aspects of life.
The Word of God s.w.t. which means:
Verily We have honored the sons of Adam.
(Surah al-Isra ': 70)
This means that man was given a mandate by God to administer and govern the universe well. However, the position of the man as a caliph who administer and govern the universe does not mean that they can exploit this environment to their liking.
As the man as vicegerent and servant of God, man is in a unique and more precious than all other creatures. Therefore, people should not be a slave or worship of other beings other than Allah
In addition, the worship of other beings could also take the form of placing priority on the creature more than the priority obey Allah An example is the misguided teachings of the spreading in Malaysia.
One is that the teachings of Ayah Pin. Ayah Pin has admitted that he is the Lord of the heavens and the earth. Unfortunately, many Muslims have low faith and his faith was influenced by the teachings of Ayah Pin and his followers.
One is if he desires worship in accordance with his desires until he is willing to violate the laws of God.
God s.w.t. says:
Have you seen him who takes his own desires as a god?
(Surah al-Jathiyah: 23)
Similarly, a person is said to worship materialism, money or rank insignia if he is willing to violate the law of God in its efforts to obtain the wealth or rank insignia.
In short, the perfect man is the man who is always aware of and appreciate the position as Caliph and at the same time also as a man of God in this world.
The fact of nature
Nature of those beings because everything created by God Creation of the universe is intended for the convenience and pleasure of men.
The Word of God s.w.t. which means:
Are you not see that Allah has given you all the facilities to the contents of the heavens and the earth.
(Surah Luqman: 20)
Man ordered to leverage and enrich the universe was created by God Thus, the prosperity of the universe with care and good utilization is also a prayer that is rewarded by Allah
The Word of God s.w.t. means:
And no partner to Him in His reign, and He created all things and he set his resolution (certain).
(Surat al-Furqan: 2)
Every creation of God s.w.t. it's for a reason. Please see the example below:
S.w.t God's purpose to make the earth:
• So people think about the creation of the earth is so perfect so confident of his power.
• For the convenience of human life in this world and to help them learn the knowledge of God
• For people using God's creation as a source of sustenance and knowledge to build a civilization.
• To demonstrate the power, majesty and wisdom of God
• As a place to live for people and places they perform acts of worship to Allah
Relationship of God, man and nature
Based on the discussion about the nature and position of God, man and nature, it is clear to you about the relationship between the three of them in terms of rights and responsibilities. God s.w.t. is the focus, determination and the culmination of all of nature and the existence of phenomena that occur therein. Humans, as a caliph and a servant of God, to fulfill God bears responsibility Faith, not only in terms of the recognition of the existence, oneness and His rububiyyah mentioned as monotheism, but also faith in terms of loyalty, obedience and worship Him who is known as monotheism uluhiyyh. Bowing to Allah s.w.t. are subject to Islamic jurisprudence and natural law. Moreover, it also means the duty of administering and prosperity of nature according to the principles prescribed by Allah.
Link: http://pengajianislam.pressbooks.com/chapter/allah-manusia-dan-alam/
Tuesday, August 26, 2014
Early Civilization Of Islam : Khulafa Ar-Rasyidin
INTRODUCTION
By : Khairul
Al-Khulafa 'al-Rashidin has played an important role in the survival of Muslims post death of the Prophet Muhammad in the year-11H. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq RA took over his leadership and continued substantial responsibility in making critical decisions involving not only political action but involves fundamentals of religion in combating the Apostate, the group refused to pay zakat and the emergence of the prosecutor's false prophecy, Musailamah al-Kazzab. Abu Bakr's quick action in order to recoup the focus of Muslims in Medina at the time, reviewed by Abu Huraira, "By Allah, there is no god but Him, Abu Bakr had not appointed a successor (of the Prophet), Allah is no longer worshiped" (Ibn Kathir : 6/309). The transition of leadership of the Prophet to al-Khulafa al-Rashidin confronted with an event later understood by Muslims as the most controversial events. This is because the Muslims split into various political currents which then flow into the faith as Shiites and Kharijites are referring to their interpretation of the events of the last controversial. Election of Abu Bakr RA as Amir al-Mu'minin (11H), the disagreement between Fatimah bint Muhammad with his RA, Ali RA allegiance to him, led to the appointment of Umar bin al-Khattab RA as a substitute (13h), killing him (23H), the appointment of Uthman RA (24), the Battle of Jamal (36H), the appointment of Ali bin Abi Talib RA as a substitute (36H), the Battle of Siffin (37H), the ongoing conflict between him and Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan RA until brought to Ali was killed (40H), which ended when Hasan bin Ali handed leadership to Muawiya bin Abi Sufyan RA six months thereafter. Muawiyah end internal conflicts Muslims for thirty years under his leadership in the year 41H. Controversial events are known and interpreted by Muslims through narrations found in various reference sources. Beyond the issue of the validity of the history, methods different narrations between a collector and author of the book with another person, a problem that can be studied. Hence this paper will explore aspects of historiography by Muhaddith method and historiography muarrikh in the time of al-Khulafa al-Rashidin.
RANKING THE COMPANIONS
historical writing on the companions have different implications from the Islamic era, the history of others. Apart from the synthesis of sources on the difference between right and wrong, the friends have a special position as described by the Qur'an and the Hadith of the Prophet. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani quoted al-Khatib al-Baghdadi that he had said, "Justice is the companion set and baited with ta'dil done by God concerning them, and notification about the sanctity of their God and His choice for them. Among them is the word of God: "You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men, (because) you enjoin what is good and forbid what is wrong (bad and evil), and you believe in Allah (with true faith) ... "(Q3: 110)" And thus (as we have led you to the right path), We created you (O men!) nation more fair option, so that you may be the person testify to the people (about the right and wrong) and the Messenger (Muhammad) will be the witness over you "(Q2: 143)" verily! Allah is pleased with those who believe, when they swore allegiance unto thee (Muhammad) under the tree (which is implied in their hearts); then (with it) it appears clear explanations about what (the truths of faith and loyalty) that is in their hearts, so He sent down tranquility on them and rewarded them with a near victory "(Q48: 18)" And those who have gone before - the first (and to help migrate) from those "immigrants" and "Ansar", and those who follow (in the footsteps of) them with good (straight), Allah be pleased with them and they are pleased with Him, and He has prepared for them gardens beneath which rivers flow, to dwell therein for ever; supreme triumph "(Q9: 100) ... in the verse (Al-Quran) that much and long on and mention the famous hadith, there are many. All lead to the finality of their stance on justice, without anyone among them - with ta'dil God for them - needing to ta'dil anyone among the creatures. Even if there even any evidence of Allah and His Messenger, respect them as our list, surely justice they will not change based on what they had done during the Hijrah, Islamic Jihad and struggle to help, sacrificing life and property, fighting fathers and their children, advising in religion, the power of faith and confidence, then they muktamadlah justice and faith of purity. They are all more honorable than all the generations that come after, and prioritized over those who come after them ... If you meet someone who abuses any of the companions of the Prophet, then know that he is Zindiq. That is because the Prophet is true, the Qur'an is true, what comes with it is also true. Indeed, all that comes to us through friends, while they (ie those who denounce friends) want to bring down our witnesses, to cancel the Book and the Sunnah ...) [1] Position of the Companions as stated, the influence of writing respect their history. Abdelkader I. Tayob considers the question of the position of the companion plays a very important role in the Islamic worldview and not just the impact of restructuring ideas by historians such as al-Tabari. He said that Baghdad on 9th century, this motif in the resource, not only have an impact on issues of historiography, but also to be debated by scholars in their ceremony because it gives a significant impact on the meaning and behavior of Islam itself (Abdelkader I. Tayob: 204). When the companions are seen as the narrators of the hadith of the Prophet who is in the highest position in the line of transmission, of course, most groups pay attention to the affairs of his companions consisted of Muhaddith as the first to do the collection and analysis of narrations from the Companions , by his friends and the friends. However, this tradition not appear suddenly. Instead, it is a continuation of the historical method of the Arabs who have been around since the pre-Islamic era again. Bersanad narrations transmitted orally from generation to generation until the arrival of Islam and changing habits historiography becomes something new.
Development of historiography THE ARAB MUSLIM
Arabs have their own methods of recording history. Ever since pre-Islamic era, the people of South Arabia in Yemen and North Arabian Sham already familiar with the story of the tradition of citing Arab rulers earlier, heroism tribes respectively, worship idols, and all their glory. Narrations are also referred to as Al-Ayyam is presented orally from generation to generation. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri said that Yamaniyyah narrations present in the initial resources and overall more of a story and misleading. Poems describing the pre-Islamic Arab life evaluated by al-Duri as not able to describe the life of ignorant Arabs. In other words, historical narrations in pre-Islamic era reported regardless of the validity of its contents, and selected only based on what the objective of proving the pride of their respective tribes and the Arabs themselves publicly. Ignorance of this historical era, even though it is mostly lost because there is no perfect process and record it in the Islamic era stance that rejects the pagan custom of worshiping idols, it is a unique feature that distinguishes the Arab historiography compared with other people, when history depends on the history of bersanad . This provides an important basis for the development of knowledge in the time of Muhammad's prophethood, who became known as al-Hadith. Quran gives new meaning to history as the stories (Al-Qasas) about the past described in the verses of Al-Quran with ibrah motif. Allah says: "Indeed in their stories is a lesson that will bring ibrah for people who have common sense. (The story of the prophets contained in the Quran) it is not the stories invented, but a confirmation of what is in the religious scriptures before him, and it was in evidence that explains everything, and a guidance and a mercy for people who (want to) believe "(Q12: 111) Al-Raghib al-Asfahani clarify the meaning ibrah (العبرة) or lesson (الاعتبار) as that which connects with the knowledge of the witness who did not witness the incident with [2] (Al-Raghib al-Asfahani: 320). The stories in the Qur'an presented with the purpose of understanding the causes and consequences of an event and its relationship to contemporary life. This motif is changing the habits of Arab historiography accept history as collectors, to make an assessment of the validity of its contents as an analyst. Own care companions who want to say things attributed to the Prophet Muhammad became an important habit in his generation as the narrator himself first. It is compatible with the warning given by the Prophet himself: "He who rejects me intentionally then tersedialah his seat of Fire" (Narrated by Muslim) Al-Hadith or Sunnah is another unique form of knowledge of the history of criticism . It is a good foundation of knowledge on history. Muslims in the early stages of recording and presenting oral history all attributed to the Prophet Muhammad. In some cases the companions of the Prophet prohibited by writing what he said, for fear of confusion among some friends among the Hadith of the Prophet with the verses of the Quran. But at the same time, there are also some of the Companions given special permission by the Prophet to write the hadith with the intention of keeping it. Among his companions was Abdullah bin Amr and others. However, we do not know clearly what the contents contained in the scrolls ever written by the author at the side of the Prophet's because most of them destroy the sheet. They feared it falling into the hands of non-members, intellectually interpreted incorrectly (Muhammad Fathi Uthman: 123). Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz RA has emphasized the importance of collecting the hadith the Prophet SAW. He once wrote a letter to the people of Medina and said, "look at hadith Prophet Muhammad and write it. I am worried about the process of seeking knowledge and extinct members "This order has been submitted to Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Amr ibn Hazm. Similarly, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri on Sunan together. Apart from that, which is also al-Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of seven jurists' Medina. But Umar bin Abd al-Aziz died before the project is completed. He could only see the initial efforts made by Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri as he stated, "We have been ordered by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to collect Sunan. And we do it by writing copy for copies. Then copy is sent to each state ruled "(Muhammad Fathi Uthman: 126).
EMERGENCE MAGHAZI and PARABLES
At this stage, the hadith of the Prophet narrated more motive to keep them as a source of law. Traditions as a source of law, better known as al-Sunnah, referring to narrations attributed to the Prophet Muhammad after his appointment as a messenger. In a wider context, the preservation of the history of the Prophet Muhammad or also seen from the corner of his beloved leader, and all of it should be known. This side is known as Sirah. Writing the history of Prophet Muhammad, an offshoot of the Islamic history. In the initial stage, it is more commonly known as al-Maghazi. Although al-Maghazi more focused on the battle of the Prophet, it covers the whole record his prophetic life. Among their many collecting history of al-Maghazi are the children of his own. For example Aban bin Uthman bin Affan and 'Urwah ibn al-Zubayr. Aban bin Uthman bin Affan collect a lot of history taken from him by the Hadith. Not many historians who narrated from him, except al-Ya'qubi. Unlike Urwah ibn al-Zubayr. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri opinion, Urwah was the first person who wrote al-Maghazi. His writings come down to us through what was narrated by al-Tabari, Ibn Ishaq, al-Waqidi, Ibn Sayyid al-Nas and Ibn Kathir. Although the accumulation of history by 'Urwah ibn al-Zubayr until the era of al-Khulafa al-Rashidin, history, memoirs and chaos are difficult to be formulated. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri concluded that the development of historical writing to the al-Maghazi, more of a collection. Individual efforts to build parts of the madrasah al-Maghazi is that each one adds what was done by their teachers before (Al-Duri: 22). Also contributing to the development of al-Maghazi is Shurahbil bin Sa`d. He has been working on a list of the names of the friends who joined the big events such as the Battle of Badr and Uhud, as well as those who participate in Poltava to Habshah and Medina.
SEPARATION SCIENCE HISTORY OF MAGHAZI
earlier efforts made by Aban, Urwah and Shurahbil continued by several other figures in developing knowledge Maghazi. Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr ibn Hazm, Asim bin Umar bin Qatadah, Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri is the main precursor to the second generation of this Maghazi operators. Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri seen by al-Duri as the first Maghazi initiate synthesis of narrations which reached him. It makes him different from their previous al-Duri and concluded that he is a member of the history (Muarrikh) first. The reason al-Duri was Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Shihab al-Zuhri did not limit her intake history only from Maghazi Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, but he sought widely narrations Medina and traditions of the narrators. He then wrote each of the hearing to help memory, and examine the narrations and arrange them in proper order. Effort was made Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri the first to write Sirah (a term he himself used) strutur specific with a clear design. At this stage, do not be a difficulty for the beginning of our history melazimi chain for each method brings history to historical events since most of them are originally Muhaddith before becoming Muarrikh. This can be seen from the generation that followed, like Musa bin Uqbah Ibn Ishaq, al-Waqidi and Ibn Sa'd. Muhaddith WRITING METHOD Based on the historical developments since the era of oral narrations to the bookkeeping history, assessment history of the main features of Islamic historiography divided into two methods of Hadith (Muhaddith) and methods of history (muarrikh). The Hadith evaluate history narrated in the chain of transmitters (sanad) and material (words) is based on the history of the conditions already known among Muhaddith. They divide the history of authentic, hasan, and weak, with branches to every part of the [3] (Al-Sayuti: 1/22). The true history known as hadith. It means the history of the chain connected by a narrator, the narrator carefully periwayatannya fair and without any abnormalities (Shaz) nor defect (illah). While a good history referred to as hasan hadith. It means the history of the chain is less than what is required for an authentic hadith. Cases are referred to as weak hadith weak. It is narrated that the chain does not meet the criteria hasan and is divided into many categories depending on the nature of the defects identified in the chain and material. Muhaddith requires the narrator to a history that must be a fair, thorough, Muslim, aqil puberty, prosperous of the reasons that led to the wickedness and humble dignity. He also must be a conscious and hafiz when narrated hafazannya, if carefully try and knowledgeable about what meaning is contained in the history of that narration. Knowledge to evaluate the narrator is known as knowledge Jarh wa Ta'dil. Scholars Jarh wa ta'dil dividing the narrator of hadith known as Rijal, to different categories with strict conditions. When a narrator that her testimony gathered against defects (Jarh) and justice (ta'dil), the majority of scholars are of the opinion that the testimony against defects narrator preferred. While some other scholars are of the opinion if the testimony of justice narrator overcame testimony against total disability, then ta'dil is preferred. Stringent conditions are applied without any dispute consumed when narrations which made the assessment is concerned with the history of the Prophet. What if these narrations concerning the companions of the Prophet? Consequently, it is possible Muhaddith method can be applied to the whole history of Islam itself? Answer this question, we must turn to the goals to be achieved by both these disciplines. Hadith studied in order to find out who built through Shariah law itself. Therefore, narrated, "chain-chain that is part of the religion. If not for the chain, he will say anything to anyone dimahunya "(Al-Qasimi: 201). While history is studied for the purpose ibrah, teaching and wisdom. If you look at the Muhaddith own, their stances narrations concerning the faith, as well as the clean and unclean, is in contrast to their stance against narrations concerning the advantages of work (fadhail al-a'mal) and targhib and tarhib. Al-Bayhaqi said, "when we narrate something of the Prophet Muhammad in matters involving Halal and Haram and other tenets, we will tighten the evaluation of the chain and Rijal. And when we reported a work-related benefits, rewards and punishment, we will relax the conditions on the chain and compromise on Rijal. If Muhaddith put conditions vary depending on the goals to be achieved from information narrations from the Prophet, then, of course, has a history narrations in the same space for relaxation was obtained. If the strict conditions imposed on the Muhaddith is imposed also on historical narrations, surely most of history there will be rejected and will not allow the writing of history to achieve the goal.
WRITING METHOD MUARRIKH
Muarrikh using a somewhat different approach than the Muhaddith because each history, have not been evaluated by the micro. Instead, each will consider consistency with historical background narrator and figures mentioned in the narration itself. In other words, the approach involves the process of assessing the pronouncement muarrikh history. This exposes us to a variety of opinions terbabitnya studied history and personal preferences of researchers interpret. However, this method has unique benefits, especially when researching narrations that we have no chain, or the chain is too vague. For example, Ibn Khaldun in al-Muqaddimah give examples of narrations brought by the early Islamic historical sources, such as al-Tabari date, the number of the children of Israel when they were in the Sinai. Historical sources state that the number of people who bring with them a weapon is 600 thousand people or more. Ibn Khaldun concluded that this amount is unlikely to be accepted as the truth, because in comparison, the King of Persia who owns a vast empire, in the face of Muslim soldiers in Qadisiyyah, their number is 120 thousand people but no history of estimating the number of them around 60 thousand only . Ibn Khaldun also argues that the Children of Israel into Egypt during the early arrival of their only berjumlah70 thousand people. Their period domiciled in Egypt until the expulsion of the Sinai is about 220 years old. Impossible 4 generations was able to achieve a total amount.
WRITING HISTORY
History of the Caliphs al-Rashidin Muhammad Muhammad Hassan Shurrab thought, historiography Sirah al-Khulafa al-Rashidin be divided into two aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah, while the second is Civilization. During the era of the companions of al-Khulafa al-Rashidin make various decisions and perform various actions detailing aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah. From the point of Faith, the companions need to determine the position of those who refused to pay zakat shortly after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Similarly, those who support al-Kazzab Musailamah. There are also big decisions involving coordination problems Fiqh Manuscripts and ijtihad series of Umar bin al-Khattab RA known as Awlawiyyat Umar. In matters like this, Dhiya Akram al-Umari broadly outline the method adopted was to prioritize the authentic narrations then hasan. After that, the weak narrations can be adopted to complete the formation of a history of the early Islamic era, as long as it works only weak fill vacancies on the evidence that there is no authentic and hasan thereon. In the event of a conflict, the stronger history is always preferred. Weak narration must also not concerned with aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah (Al-Umari: 25). The narrations concerning aspects of civilization such as urban planning, construction and excavation of the canal, it should happen flexibility in it, as long as it is not excessive to cast off from the realities of history, the narrative form of delusion.
EXAMPLE: THE STORY OF ABU Dhar Al-Ghifari RA Muhammad Muhammad Hasan Abu Dhar Shurrab story quoting al-Ghifari as told by Ahmad Amin in his book Fajr al-Islam. Ahmad Amin wanted to prove the influence of Persian beliefs of Muslims through the story of Abu Dhar RA. Ahmad Amin explained on page 110, that there were similarities between the opinion of Abu Dhar al-Ghifari with Mazdak opinion, the founder of the Persian Mazdakism in property issues. Ahmad Amin back up this statement to the narration quoted from Tarikh al-Tabari, who said: Abu Dhar had lived in Syria and he said, "O ye evil tycoon and the destitute, give glad tidings to those who accumulate gold and silver, but they it does not spend it in Allah's way, that will be poured molten iron from the fire on, side and front of them. They will remain so until the poor condition redeem it from the rich and wealthy to get a reply from what they have done to the people. "Then Muawiya had sent Abu Dhar went to Uthman in Medina to Abu Dhar did not damage the population Syria. Uthman asked him, "What is the population description Syria complained to sass mouth?" Abu Dhar said, "is not to be for the rich monopolize property" Ahmad Amin concluded based on this history that stand Abu Dhar on the property, like the argument Mazdak. How Abu Dhar can receive Mazdak the Persian influence it? Ahmad Amin explained that Tabari himself had brought the answer to this issue by saying, "Ibn-Sawda '(Abdullah bin Saba' al-Yamani) met Abu Dhar and menghasutnya about this. Ibn-Sawda 'the same too met with Abu Darda' and Ubadah bin al-Samit, but they refused to pray. Ubadah led Ibn Sawda 'met with Muawiyah and said, "This man is in God who sent Abu Dhar to ..." Muhammad Muhammad Hasan Shurrab pointed out that such stories are examples of conditions that require a more stringent approach Muhaddith worn. Abu Dhar al-Ghifari RA was one of the companions are guaranteed Paradise by the Prophet Muhammad. He is also a narrator of many hadith narrated totaling 281 hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. At the same time, Shurrab opinion, Tabari narrated on Abu Dhar said the meeting with al-Ghifari Abdullah bin Saba ', standing singly without any other history that supports it. All members of the history, citing the story of this meeting, leaning on the history of Tabari. Tarikh al-Tabari as is known, together with a chain of narration without distinguish between authentic with a lie. Chain that is the determination of the validity of the source of a narration. At the same time Tabari also alone in narrating the news that a Saif bin 'Umar, who was criticized by scholars as a designer Ta'dil Jarh and false history, false, weak, sinful, even deemed Zindiq as may be referred to in Tahdzib al-Tahdzib by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani. History of al-Tabari, this statement alone in the story of Abu Dhar meeting with Abdullah bin Saba ', in contrast to other narrations that tell the misunderstanding that occurred between Abu Dhar to Uthman and Muawiyah, but there is no explanation for the involvement of Abdullah bin Saba' regarding this matter. For example narration in Musnad al-Imam Ahmad (5/147) under chapter Destructive Abu Dhar, Umar bin Shabbah recounted in his book, Tarikh al-Madinah some history about the disagreements that occurred between Abu Dhar and Uthman, then Muawiyah. Throughout the story, there is mentioned a meeting between Abu Dhar with Abdullah bin Saba '. In terms of material (words) history, Abu Dhar al-Ghifari was a pious companion and Faqih as explained by Ibn Abd al-Barr in al-Isti'ab, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in al-Isabah and Ibn Sa'd in al-Tabaqat al-Kubra. It is unreasonable Abu Dhar deemed so, can hear and be influenced by the opinion of a new convert to Islam as Abdullah bin Saba. Ibn Hajar in al-Isabah explained that Abu Dhar never argue with Ibn Mas'ud in terms of knowledge. Order spend either in the form of zakat, charity or other money transmission in the community is something that is already acknowledged by all Muslims. Very awkward when Abu Dhar had insisted in calling this to our friends. The conclusion to this case, the action Ahmad Amin in linking Mazdak influence on the history of Tabari Abu Dhar was rejected, when we impose conditions Muhaddith of the resources referred to. It is compatible with the position of Abu Dhar himself as narrator of hadith. Similarly, Uthman and Muawiyah who also was a friend of the Prophet Muhammad. History is also rejected by the irregularities that occurred in the content of history as opposed to information about Abu Dhar itself and the atmosphere that existed at the time of the companions.
EXAMPLE OF WAR HISTORY BY TABARI of Jamal and Siffin Abdelkader I. Tayob in her paper Tabari on the Companions of the Prophet: Moral and Political Contours in Islamic Writing Historial checked carefully to the approach adopted by Ibn Jarir al-Tabari in history collection relating to the companions of Prophet Muhammad, to make the Battle of Jamal and Siffin War as the focus of the study. Tabari as a Muhaddith involved in the history of pushing the limits of control over reports that narration. Anything that comes to his history is recorded along with the chain of narrators as a determinant of authentic history to the contrary. Tayob also quoting Albrecht Noth stating that the narrations of early Islamic era of conflicting reports on important events that are related to religion and poilitik. Reports tend to a variety of groups in the Muslim community would be difficult to associated resources in certain regions due to chaos that occurs in the earlier history. Even Noth also concluded that the early Muslim history, is more of a collector and not the operator that analyzes the content of the synthesis of the above sources. Noth also questioned Wellhausen opinion that classifies the flow of history to the region of Medina and Iraq.
CONCLUSION
Writing history involves the era of al-Khulafa 'al-Rashidin should utilize both methods adopted by the Muhaddith and muarrikh to form sejahtera.Biar historiography that there was a significant difference between the conditions of reception history by Muhaddith compared with muarrikh which is an important condition to screen narrations concerning the question of faith and sharia, muarrikh approach in the narrations come collectively, make comparisons and interpret the contents, allowing the truth be identified, particularly when dealing with non bersanad narrations, or the chain is too vague and incomplete Muhaddith evaluated.
Info ; http://saifulislam.com/2014/02/pensejarahan-al-khulafa-al-rashidin-antara-muhaddith-dan-muarrikh/
By : Khairul
RANKING THE COMPANIONS
historical writing on the companions have different implications from the Islamic era, the history of others. Apart from the synthesis of sources on the difference between right and wrong, the friends have a special position as described by the Qur'an and the Hadith of the Prophet. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani quoted al-Khatib al-Baghdadi that he had said, "Justice is the companion set and baited with ta'dil done by God concerning them, and notification about the sanctity of their God and His choice for them. Among them is the word of God: "You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men, (because) you enjoin what is good and forbid what is wrong (bad and evil), and you believe in Allah (with true faith) ... "(Q3: 110)" And thus (as we have led you to the right path), We created you (O men!) nation more fair option, so that you may be the person testify to the people (about the right and wrong) and the Messenger (Muhammad) will be the witness over you "(Q2: 143)" verily! Allah is pleased with those who believe, when they swore allegiance unto thee (Muhammad) under the tree (which is implied in their hearts); then (with it) it appears clear explanations about what (the truths of faith and loyalty) that is in their hearts, so He sent down tranquility on them and rewarded them with a near victory "(Q48: 18)" And those who have gone before - the first (and to help migrate) from those "immigrants" and "Ansar", and those who follow (in the footsteps of) them with good (straight), Allah be pleased with them and they are pleased with Him, and He has prepared for them gardens beneath which rivers flow, to dwell therein for ever; supreme triumph "(Q9: 100) ... in the verse (Al-Quran) that much and long on and mention the famous hadith, there are many. All lead to the finality of their stance on justice, without anyone among them - with ta'dil God for them - needing to ta'dil anyone among the creatures. Even if there even any evidence of Allah and His Messenger, respect them as our list, surely justice they will not change based on what they had done during the Hijrah, Islamic Jihad and struggle to help, sacrificing life and property, fighting fathers and their children, advising in religion, the power of faith and confidence, then they muktamadlah justice and faith of purity. They are all more honorable than all the generations that come after, and prioritized over those who come after them ... If you meet someone who abuses any of the companions of the Prophet, then know that he is Zindiq. That is because the Prophet is true, the Qur'an is true, what comes with it is also true. Indeed, all that comes to us through friends, while they (ie those who denounce friends) want to bring down our witnesses, to cancel the Book and the Sunnah ...) [1] Position of the Companions as stated, the influence of writing respect their history. Abdelkader I. Tayob considers the question of the position of the companion plays a very important role in the Islamic worldview and not just the impact of restructuring ideas by historians such as al-Tabari. He said that Baghdad on 9th century, this motif in the resource, not only have an impact on issues of historiography, but also to be debated by scholars in their ceremony because it gives a significant impact on the meaning and behavior of Islam itself (Abdelkader I. Tayob: 204). When the companions are seen as the narrators of the hadith of the Prophet who is in the highest position in the line of transmission, of course, most groups pay attention to the affairs of his companions consisted of Muhaddith as the first to do the collection and analysis of narrations from the Companions , by his friends and the friends. However, this tradition not appear suddenly. Instead, it is a continuation of the historical method of the Arabs who have been around since the pre-Islamic era again. Bersanad narrations transmitted orally from generation to generation until the arrival of Islam and changing habits historiography becomes something new.
Development of historiography THE ARAB MUSLIM
Arabs have their own methods of recording history. Ever since pre-Islamic era, the people of South Arabia in Yemen and North Arabian Sham already familiar with the story of the tradition of citing Arab rulers earlier, heroism tribes respectively, worship idols, and all their glory. Narrations are also referred to as Al-Ayyam is presented orally from generation to generation. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri said that Yamaniyyah narrations present in the initial resources and overall more of a story and misleading. Poems describing the pre-Islamic Arab life evaluated by al-Duri as not able to describe the life of ignorant Arabs. In other words, historical narrations in pre-Islamic era reported regardless of the validity of its contents, and selected only based on what the objective of proving the pride of their respective tribes and the Arabs themselves publicly. Ignorance of this historical era, even though it is mostly lost because there is no perfect process and record it in the Islamic era stance that rejects the pagan custom of worshiping idols, it is a unique feature that distinguishes the Arab historiography compared with other people, when history depends on the history of bersanad . This provides an important basis for the development of knowledge in the time of Muhammad's prophethood, who became known as al-Hadith. Quran gives new meaning to history as the stories (Al-Qasas) about the past described in the verses of Al-Quran with ibrah motif. Allah says: "Indeed in their stories is a lesson that will bring ibrah for people who have common sense. (The story of the prophets contained in the Quran) it is not the stories invented, but a confirmation of what is in the religious scriptures before him, and it was in evidence that explains everything, and a guidance and a mercy for people who (want to) believe "(Q12: 111) Al-Raghib al-Asfahani clarify the meaning ibrah (العبرة) or lesson (الاعتبار) as that which connects with the knowledge of the witness who did not witness the incident with [2] (Al-Raghib al-Asfahani: 320). The stories in the Qur'an presented with the purpose of understanding the causes and consequences of an event and its relationship to contemporary life. This motif is changing the habits of Arab historiography accept history as collectors, to make an assessment of the validity of its contents as an analyst. Own care companions who want to say things attributed to the Prophet Muhammad became an important habit in his generation as the narrator himself first. It is compatible with the warning given by the Prophet himself: "He who rejects me intentionally then tersedialah his seat of Fire" (Narrated by Muslim) Al-Hadith or Sunnah is another unique form of knowledge of the history of criticism . It is a good foundation of knowledge on history. Muslims in the early stages of recording and presenting oral history all attributed to the Prophet Muhammad. In some cases the companions of the Prophet prohibited by writing what he said, for fear of confusion among some friends among the Hadith of the Prophet with the verses of the Quran. But at the same time, there are also some of the Companions given special permission by the Prophet to write the hadith with the intention of keeping it. Among his companions was Abdullah bin Amr and others. However, we do not know clearly what the contents contained in the scrolls ever written by the author at the side of the Prophet's because most of them destroy the sheet. They feared it falling into the hands of non-members, intellectually interpreted incorrectly (Muhammad Fathi Uthman: 123). Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz RA has emphasized the importance of collecting the hadith the Prophet SAW. He once wrote a letter to the people of Medina and said, "look at hadith Prophet Muhammad and write it. I am worried about the process of seeking knowledge and extinct members "This order has been submitted to Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad ibn Amr ibn Hazm. Similarly, Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri on Sunan together. Apart from that, which is also al-Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of seven jurists' Medina. But Umar bin Abd al-Aziz died before the project is completed. He could only see the initial efforts made by Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri as he stated, "We have been ordered by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to collect Sunan. And we do it by writing copy for copies. Then copy is sent to each state ruled "(Muhammad Fathi Uthman: 126).
EMERGENCE MAGHAZI and PARABLES
At this stage, the hadith of the Prophet narrated more motive to keep them as a source of law. Traditions as a source of law, better known as al-Sunnah, referring to narrations attributed to the Prophet Muhammad after his appointment as a messenger. In a wider context, the preservation of the history of the Prophet Muhammad or also seen from the corner of his beloved leader, and all of it should be known. This side is known as Sirah. Writing the history of Prophet Muhammad, an offshoot of the Islamic history. In the initial stage, it is more commonly known as al-Maghazi. Although al-Maghazi more focused on the battle of the Prophet, it covers the whole record his prophetic life. Among their many collecting history of al-Maghazi are the children of his own. For example Aban bin Uthman bin Affan and 'Urwah ibn al-Zubayr. Aban bin Uthman bin Affan collect a lot of history taken from him by the Hadith. Not many historians who narrated from him, except al-Ya'qubi. Unlike Urwah ibn al-Zubayr. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri opinion, Urwah was the first person who wrote al-Maghazi. His writings come down to us through what was narrated by al-Tabari, Ibn Ishaq, al-Waqidi, Ibn Sayyid al-Nas and Ibn Kathir. Although the accumulation of history by 'Urwah ibn al-Zubayr until the era of al-Khulafa al-Rashidin, history, memoirs and chaos are difficult to be formulated. Abd al-Aziz al-Duri concluded that the development of historical writing to the al-Maghazi, more of a collection. Individual efforts to build parts of the madrasah al-Maghazi is that each one adds what was done by their teachers before (Al-Duri: 22). Also contributing to the development of al-Maghazi is Shurahbil bin Sa`d. He has been working on a list of the names of the friends who joined the big events such as the Battle of Badr and Uhud, as well as those who participate in Poltava to Habshah and Medina.
SEPARATION SCIENCE HISTORY OF MAGHAZI
earlier efforts made by Aban, Urwah and Shurahbil continued by several other figures in developing knowledge Maghazi. Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr ibn Hazm, Asim bin Umar bin Qatadah, Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri is the main precursor to the second generation of this Maghazi operators. Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri seen by al-Duri as the first Maghazi initiate synthesis of narrations which reached him. It makes him different from their previous al-Duri and concluded that he is a member of the history (Muarrikh) first. The reason al-Duri was Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Shihab al-Zuhri did not limit her intake history only from Maghazi Urwah ibn al-Zubayr, but he sought widely narrations Medina and traditions of the narrators. He then wrote each of the hearing to help memory, and examine the narrations and arrange them in proper order. Effort was made Muhammad bin Muslim bin Shihab al-Zuhri the first to write Sirah (a term he himself used) strutur specific with a clear design. At this stage, do not be a difficulty for the beginning of our history melazimi chain for each method brings history to historical events since most of them are originally Muhaddith before becoming Muarrikh. This can be seen from the generation that followed, like Musa bin Uqbah Ibn Ishaq, al-Waqidi and Ibn Sa'd. Muhaddith WRITING METHOD Based on the historical developments since the era of oral narrations to the bookkeeping history, assessment history of the main features of Islamic historiography divided into two methods of Hadith (Muhaddith) and methods of history (muarrikh). The Hadith evaluate history narrated in the chain of transmitters (sanad) and material (words) is based on the history of the conditions already known among Muhaddith. They divide the history of authentic, hasan, and weak, with branches to every part of the [3] (Al-Sayuti: 1/22). The true history known as hadith. It means the history of the chain connected by a narrator, the narrator carefully periwayatannya fair and without any abnormalities (Shaz) nor defect (illah). While a good history referred to as hasan hadith. It means the history of the chain is less than what is required for an authentic hadith. Cases are referred to as weak hadith weak. It is narrated that the chain does not meet the criteria hasan and is divided into many categories depending on the nature of the defects identified in the chain and material. Muhaddith requires the narrator to a history that must be a fair, thorough, Muslim, aqil puberty, prosperous of the reasons that led to the wickedness and humble dignity. He also must be a conscious and hafiz when narrated hafazannya, if carefully try and knowledgeable about what meaning is contained in the history of that narration. Knowledge to evaluate the narrator is known as knowledge Jarh wa Ta'dil. Scholars Jarh wa ta'dil dividing the narrator of hadith known as Rijal, to different categories with strict conditions. When a narrator that her testimony gathered against defects (Jarh) and justice (ta'dil), the majority of scholars are of the opinion that the testimony against defects narrator preferred. While some other scholars are of the opinion if the testimony of justice narrator overcame testimony against total disability, then ta'dil is preferred. Stringent conditions are applied without any dispute consumed when narrations which made the assessment is concerned with the history of the Prophet. What if these narrations concerning the companions of the Prophet? Consequently, it is possible Muhaddith method can be applied to the whole history of Islam itself? Answer this question, we must turn to the goals to be achieved by both these disciplines. Hadith studied in order to find out who built through Shariah law itself. Therefore, narrated, "chain-chain that is part of the religion. If not for the chain, he will say anything to anyone dimahunya "(Al-Qasimi: 201). While history is studied for the purpose ibrah, teaching and wisdom. If you look at the Muhaddith own, their stances narrations concerning the faith, as well as the clean and unclean, is in contrast to their stance against narrations concerning the advantages of work (fadhail al-a'mal) and targhib and tarhib. Al-Bayhaqi said, "when we narrate something of the Prophet Muhammad in matters involving Halal and Haram and other tenets, we will tighten the evaluation of the chain and Rijal. And when we reported a work-related benefits, rewards and punishment, we will relax the conditions on the chain and compromise on Rijal. If Muhaddith put conditions vary depending on the goals to be achieved from information narrations from the Prophet, then, of course, has a history narrations in the same space for relaxation was obtained. If the strict conditions imposed on the Muhaddith is imposed also on historical narrations, surely most of history there will be rejected and will not allow the writing of history to achieve the goal.
WRITING METHOD MUARRIKH
Muarrikh using a somewhat different approach than the Muhaddith because each history, have not been evaluated by the micro. Instead, each will consider consistency with historical background narrator and figures mentioned in the narration itself. In other words, the approach involves the process of assessing the pronouncement muarrikh history. This exposes us to a variety of opinions terbabitnya studied history and personal preferences of researchers interpret. However, this method has unique benefits, especially when researching narrations that we have no chain, or the chain is too vague. For example, Ibn Khaldun in al-Muqaddimah give examples of narrations brought by the early Islamic historical sources, such as al-Tabari date, the number of the children of Israel when they were in the Sinai. Historical sources state that the number of people who bring with them a weapon is 600 thousand people or more. Ibn Khaldun concluded that this amount is unlikely to be accepted as the truth, because in comparison, the King of Persia who owns a vast empire, in the face of Muslim soldiers in Qadisiyyah, their number is 120 thousand people but no history of estimating the number of them around 60 thousand only . Ibn Khaldun also argues that the Children of Israel into Egypt during the early arrival of their only berjumlah70 thousand people. Their period domiciled in Egypt until the expulsion of the Sinai is about 220 years old. Impossible 4 generations was able to achieve a total amount.
WRITING HISTORY
History of the Caliphs al-Rashidin Muhammad Muhammad Hassan Shurrab thought, historiography Sirah al-Khulafa al-Rashidin be divided into two aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah, while the second is Civilization. During the era of the companions of al-Khulafa al-Rashidin make various decisions and perform various actions detailing aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah. From the point of Faith, the companions need to determine the position of those who refused to pay zakat shortly after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Similarly, those who support al-Kazzab Musailamah. There are also big decisions involving coordination problems Fiqh Manuscripts and ijtihad series of Umar bin al-Khattab RA known as Awlawiyyat Umar. In matters like this, Dhiya Akram al-Umari broadly outline the method adopted was to prioritize the authentic narrations then hasan. After that, the weak narrations can be adopted to complete the formation of a history of the early Islamic era, as long as it works only weak fill vacancies on the evidence that there is no authentic and hasan thereon. In the event of a conflict, the stronger history is always preferred. Weak narration must also not concerned with aspects of Aqeedah and the Shariah (Al-Umari: 25). The narrations concerning aspects of civilization such as urban planning, construction and excavation of the canal, it should happen flexibility in it, as long as it is not excessive to cast off from the realities of history, the narrative form of delusion.
EXAMPLE: THE STORY OF ABU Dhar Al-Ghifari RA Muhammad Muhammad Hasan Abu Dhar Shurrab story quoting al-Ghifari as told by Ahmad Amin in his book Fajr al-Islam. Ahmad Amin wanted to prove the influence of Persian beliefs of Muslims through the story of Abu Dhar RA. Ahmad Amin explained on page 110, that there were similarities between the opinion of Abu Dhar al-Ghifari with Mazdak opinion, the founder of the Persian Mazdakism in property issues. Ahmad Amin back up this statement to the narration quoted from Tarikh al-Tabari, who said: Abu Dhar had lived in Syria and he said, "O ye evil tycoon and the destitute, give glad tidings to those who accumulate gold and silver, but they it does not spend it in Allah's way, that will be poured molten iron from the fire on, side and front of them. They will remain so until the poor condition redeem it from the rich and wealthy to get a reply from what they have done to the people. "Then Muawiya had sent Abu Dhar went to Uthman in Medina to Abu Dhar did not damage the population Syria. Uthman asked him, "What is the population description Syria complained to sass mouth?" Abu Dhar said, "is not to be for the rich monopolize property" Ahmad Amin concluded based on this history that stand Abu Dhar on the property, like the argument Mazdak. How Abu Dhar can receive Mazdak the Persian influence it? Ahmad Amin explained that Tabari himself had brought the answer to this issue by saying, "Ibn-Sawda '(Abdullah bin Saba' al-Yamani) met Abu Dhar and menghasutnya about this. Ibn-Sawda 'the same too met with Abu Darda' and Ubadah bin al-Samit, but they refused to pray. Ubadah led Ibn Sawda 'met with Muawiyah and said, "This man is in God who sent Abu Dhar to ..." Muhammad Muhammad Hasan Shurrab pointed out that such stories are examples of conditions that require a more stringent approach Muhaddith worn. Abu Dhar al-Ghifari RA was one of the companions are guaranteed Paradise by the Prophet Muhammad. He is also a narrator of many hadith narrated totaling 281 hadith in Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. At the same time, Shurrab opinion, Tabari narrated on Abu Dhar said the meeting with al-Ghifari Abdullah bin Saba ', standing singly without any other history that supports it. All members of the history, citing the story of this meeting, leaning on the history of Tabari. Tarikh al-Tabari as is known, together with a chain of narration without distinguish between authentic with a lie. Chain that is the determination of the validity of the source of a narration. At the same time Tabari also alone in narrating the news that a Saif bin 'Umar, who was criticized by scholars as a designer Ta'dil Jarh and false history, false, weak, sinful, even deemed Zindiq as may be referred to in Tahdzib al-Tahdzib by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani. History of al-Tabari, this statement alone in the story of Abu Dhar meeting with Abdullah bin Saba ', in contrast to other narrations that tell the misunderstanding that occurred between Abu Dhar to Uthman and Muawiyah, but there is no explanation for the involvement of Abdullah bin Saba' regarding this matter. For example narration in Musnad al-Imam Ahmad (5/147) under chapter Destructive Abu Dhar, Umar bin Shabbah recounted in his book, Tarikh al-Madinah some history about the disagreements that occurred between Abu Dhar and Uthman, then Muawiyah. Throughout the story, there is mentioned a meeting between Abu Dhar with Abdullah bin Saba '. In terms of material (words) history, Abu Dhar al-Ghifari was a pious companion and Faqih as explained by Ibn Abd al-Barr in al-Isti'ab, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani in al-Isabah and Ibn Sa'd in al-Tabaqat al-Kubra. It is unreasonable Abu Dhar deemed so, can hear and be influenced by the opinion of a new convert to Islam as Abdullah bin Saba. Ibn Hajar in al-Isabah explained that Abu Dhar never argue with Ibn Mas'ud in terms of knowledge. Order spend either in the form of zakat, charity or other money transmission in the community is something that is already acknowledged by all Muslims. Very awkward when Abu Dhar had insisted in calling this to our friends. The conclusion to this case, the action Ahmad Amin in linking Mazdak influence on the history of Tabari Abu Dhar was rejected, when we impose conditions Muhaddith of the resources referred to. It is compatible with the position of Abu Dhar himself as narrator of hadith. Similarly, Uthman and Muawiyah who also was a friend of the Prophet Muhammad. History is also rejected by the irregularities that occurred in the content of history as opposed to information about Abu Dhar itself and the atmosphere that existed at the time of the companions.
EXAMPLE OF WAR HISTORY BY TABARI of Jamal and Siffin Abdelkader I. Tayob in her paper Tabari on the Companions of the Prophet: Moral and Political Contours in Islamic Writing Historial checked carefully to the approach adopted by Ibn Jarir al-Tabari in history collection relating to the companions of Prophet Muhammad, to make the Battle of Jamal and Siffin War as the focus of the study. Tabari as a Muhaddith involved in the history of pushing the limits of control over reports that narration. Anything that comes to his history is recorded along with the chain of narrators as a determinant of authentic history to the contrary. Tayob also quoting Albrecht Noth stating that the narrations of early Islamic era of conflicting reports on important events that are related to religion and poilitik. Reports tend to a variety of groups in the Muslim community would be difficult to associated resources in certain regions due to chaos that occurs in the earlier history. Even Noth also concluded that the early Muslim history, is more of a collector and not the operator that analyzes the content of the synthesis of the above sources. Noth also questioned Wellhausen opinion that classifies the flow of history to the region of Medina and Iraq.
CONCLUSION
Writing history involves the era of al-Khulafa 'al-Rashidin should utilize both methods adopted by the Muhaddith and muarrikh to form sejahtera.Biar historiography that there was a significant difference between the conditions of reception history by Muhaddith compared with muarrikh which is an important condition to screen narrations concerning the question of faith and sharia, muarrikh approach in the narrations come collectively, make comparisons and interpret the contents, allowing the truth be identified, particularly when dealing with non bersanad narrations, or the chain is too vague and incomplete Muhaddith evaluated.
Info ; http://saifulislam.com/2014/02/pensejarahan-al-khulafa-al-rashidin-antara-muhaddith-dan-muarrikh/
Hubungan Manusia Terhadap Alam Sekitar
(Nazrin)
Antara aspek yang penting dalam memahami pandangan semesta Islam ialah anda perlu memahami hakikat Allah s.w.t., manusia dan alam seluruhnya serta hubungan antara ketiga-tiga unsur tersebut dari segi hak dan tanggungjawab masing-masing.
Hakikat Allah s.w.t.
Hakikat Allah s.w.t. mestilah diketahui berdasarkan maklumat yang diberikan oleh Allah s.w.t. melalui wahyu-Nya dalam al-Qur’an mahupun al-Hadith. Tidak ada sesiapa juga yang dapat mengetahui hakikat Allah melalui sumber-sumber yang lain.
Berdasarkan wahyu-Nya, kita mengetahui bahawa Allah s.w.t. adalah Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan berbeza daripada segala makhluk yang terdapat dalam alam semesta ini.
Firman Allah s.w.t. yang bermaksud:
| Katakanlah (wahai Muhammad) Dialah (Allah) Tuhan yang Esa.
(Surah al-Ikhlas: 1)
|
Firman-Nya lagi yang bermaksud:
| Tiada baginya persamaan dengan sesuatupun.
(Surah al-Ikhlas: 4)
|
Allah s.w.t. bersifat dengan segala sifat kesempurnaan dan Maha Suci daripada segala sifat kekurangan. Allah s.w.t. tidak sama dengan makhluk dalam apa bentuk sekalipun tetapi mempunyai persamaan dengan sifat makhluk. Sungguhpun demikian, adalah mustahil Allah s.w.t. mempunyai sebarang sifat kelemahan.
Allah sahajalah yang menciptakan manusia dan segala alam ini. Oleh kerana Allah Maha Sempurna, maka Allah mencipta alam ini dengan penuh kesempurnaan. Oleh kerana Allah Maha Pengasih dan Penyayang, maka Allah mencipta alam ini dengan penuh kasih sayang. Begitu juga, oleh kerana Allah Maha Bijaksana, maka Allah s.w.t. mencipta alam ini dengan serba lengkap dan tahu segala kelemahan, kekurangan, keperluan dan kekuatan alam ini.
Dengan itu, untuk memelihara alam yang diciptakan-Nya, Allah s.w.t. telah menurunkan peraturan-peraturan-Nya untuk dipatuhi. Bagi makhluk yang berakal seperti manusia dan jin, Allah menurunkan peraturan-Nya dalam bentuk hukum syarak dan juga hukum alam. Manakala bagi makhluk yang tidak berakal pula, seperti haiwan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan, Allah s.w.t. menurunkan hukum alam sahaja.
Bagi menjamin kehidupan yang sempurna, semua makhluk perlu taat dan patuh kepada peraturan ciptaan Allah sama ada dalam bentuk hukum syarak mahupun hukum alam. Manusia yang engkar mematuhi hukum syarak dan juga hukum alam ciptaan Allah s.w.t. akan menghadapi kemusnahan di dunia dan di akhirat. Begitu juga makhluk lain seperti haiwan dan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang tidak patuh kepada hukum alam ciptaan Allah akan turut menghadapi kemusnahan di dunia ini. Hal ini kerana Allah Maha Mengetahui apa yang baik dan apa yang tidak baik bagi makhluk-makhluk ciptaan-Nya.
 | Aktiviti 5.2 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Soalan kepada aktiviti 5.2 | | Cadangan jawapan untuk aktiviti 5.2 | |
Hakikat manusia
Manusia pada pandangan Islam merupakan makhluk yang paling mulia. Sila teliti jadual di bawah yang menunjukkan hikmah Allah s.w.t. mencipta manusia.
| Hikmah manusia dijadikan sebaik-baik makhluk di dunia
1. Supaya manusia menginsafi dalam dirinya bahawa Allah s.w.t. menciptakannya dalam bentuk yang sempurna.
2. Supaya manusia bersyukur di atas nikmat kurniaan Allah s.w.t. yang telah mencipta sebaik-baik kejadian.
3. Membolehkan manusia menjadi khalifah di muka bumi untuk menegakkan Islam dan memakmurkan alam.
4. Supaya manusia tunduk kepada perintah Allah s.w.t. dalam segenap aspek kehidupan.
|
Firman Allah s.w.t. yang bermaksud:
| Sesungguhnya Kami memuliakan anak Adam.
(Surah al-Isra’: 70)
|
Hal ini bermakna manusia diberikan mandat oleh Allah s.w.t. untuk mentadbir dan memerintah alam ini dengan baik. Namun begitu, kedudukan manusia sebagai khalifah yang mentadbir dan memerintah alam ini tidak bermakna mereka boleh mengeksploitasi alam ini sesuka hati mereka.
Oleh kerana kedudukan manusia sebagai khalifah dan hamba Allah, maka manusia berada pada kedudukan yang tersendiri dan lebih mulia daripada segala makhluk yang lain. Dengan itu, manusia tidak sepatutnya menjadi hamba atau bertuhankan kepada makhluk yang lain selain daripada Allah s.w.t.
Selain itu, bertuhankan kepada makhluk yang lain juga boleh berlaku dalam bentuk meletakkan keutamaan kepada makhluk itu melebihi keutamaan mematuhi perintah Allah s.w.t. Contohnya ialah ajaran-ajaran sesat yang semakin merebak di Malaysia.
Salah satu daripadanya ialah ajaran Ayah Pin. Ayah Pin telah mengaku bahawa beliau merupakan Tuhan bagi kerajaan langit dan bumi. Malangnya, ramai umat Islam yang rendah iman dan akidahnya telah terpengaruh dengan ajaran Ayah Pin dan menjadi pengikutnya.
Seseorang itu pula bertuhankan hawa nafsu jika dia menurut kehendak hawa nafsunya sehingga dia sanggup melanggar batasan hukum-hukum Allah.
Allah s.w.t. berfirman yang bermaksud:
| Adakah engkau melihat orang yang mengambil hawa nafsunya sebagai tuhan?
(Surah al-Jathiyah: 23)
|
Begitu juga seseorang dikatakan bertuhankan kebendaan, wang ringgit atau pangkat kebesaran jika dia sanggup melanggar hukum Allah dalam usahanya untuk mendapatkan kekayaan atau pangkat kebesaran tersebut.
Ringkasnya, manusia yang sempurna ialah manusia yang sentiasa menyedari dan menghayati kedudukannya sebagai khalifah dan pada masa yang sama juga sebagai hamba Allah di alam ini.
Hakikat alam
Alam termasuk dalam golongan makhluk kerana semuanya dicipta oleh Allah s.w.t. Penciptaan alam semesta ini bertujuan untuk kemudahan dan kesenangan manusia.
Firman Allah s.w.t. yang bermaksud:
| Apakah engkau tidak melihat bahawa Allah telah memberikan kemudahan kepada kamu segala isi kandungan langit dan bumi.
(Surah Luqman: 20)
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Manusia diperintahkan untuk memanfaatkan dan memakmurkan alam semesta yang diciptakan oleh Allah s.w.t. Oleh itu, memakmurkan alam semesta dengan menjaganya dan memanfaatkannya secara baik adalah juga satu ibadat yang diberikan ganjaran pahala oleh Allah s.w.t.
Firman Allah s.w.t. bermaksud:
| Dan tiada bagi-Nya sekutu dalam pemerintahan-Nya dan Ia menciptakan setiap perkara maka Ia tetapkan baginya ketetapan (tertentu).
(Surah al-Furqan: 2)
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Setiap ciptaan Allah s.w.t. itu ada tujuannya. Sila lihat contoh di bawah:
| Tujuan Allah s.w.t menjadikan bumi:
• Supaya manusia berfikir tentang kejadian bumi yang begitu sempurna seterusnya yakin dengan kekuasaan-Nya.
• Untuk kemudahan hidup manusia di alam ini dan untuk memudahkan mereka mempelajari ilmu-ilmu Allah s.w.t.
• Supaya manusia menggunakan alam ciptaan Allah s.w.t. sebagai sumber rezeki dan ilmu membina tamadun.
• Untuk menunjukkan kekuasaan, kebesaran dan kebijaksanaan Allah s.w.t.
• Sebagai tempat tinggal kepada manusia dan tempat mereka melakukan amal ibadat kepada Allah s.w.t.
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Hubungan Allah, manusia dan alam
Berdasarkan perbincangan tentang hakikat dan kedudukan Allah, manusia dan alam, maka jelaslah kepada anda tentang hubungan antara ketiga-tiganya dari segi hak dan tanggungjawab. Allah s.w.t. merupakan tumpuan, penentu dan kemuncak bagi segala kewujudan alam dan fenomena yang berlaku dalamnya. Manusia pula, sebagai khalifah dan hamba Allah, perlu menunaikan tanggungjawab mentauhidkan Allah s.w.t. Tauhid bukan sahaja dari segi pengakuan terhadap kewujudan, keesaan dan kekuasaan-Nya yang disebutkan sebagai tauhid rububiyyah, tetapi juga tauhid dari segi ketaatan, kepatuhan dan beribadat kepada-Nya yang dikenali sebagai tauhid uluhiyyh. Tunduk kepada Allah s.w.t. adalah tunduk kepada hukum-hakam syarak dan hukum alam. Selain itu, ia juga bererti kewajipan mentadbir dan memakmurkan alam mengikut lunas-lunas yang ditentukan oleh Allah s.w.t.
Dinasti Abbisyah (Search by Firman)
Walaupun terdapat banyak perbezaan, banyak yang ahli sejarah membahagikan sejarah tamadun periodisasi Abbasiyah Dinasti yang merupakan kira-kira lima ratus tahun (750-1258 AD / 132-656 AH) ke dalam dua tempoh utama. Tempoh pertama, tahan antara 750-945M / 132-334H tahun, yang pada masa itu dinasti Abbasiyyah mempunyai kuasa politik yang sangat kuat dan kemudian dapat melahirkan kemajuan tamadun yang dipanggil "Golden Era" (Golden Age ). Tetapi tempoh ini juga pernah berkata kemunculan benih penurunan dan kelemahan politik yang berlaku pada akhir zaman ini.
Walaupun tempoh kedua (945-1258M) adalah tempoh masa di mana Dinasti Abbasiyah mengalami kemunduran dgn nyata politik dan kehilangan kuasa khalifah kuasa terhadap beberapa bidang ditambah pula dengan kemunculan negara kecil (duwaylāt), yang mencapai kemerdekaan. Satu lagi ciri tempoh ini masih sisa-sisa halimunan pengaruh era kegemilangan tamadun Islam termaktub dalam pembangunan pelbagai disiplin saintifik (`ulum), pembinaan (` umran), pencapaian kemakmuran, sehingga tahap yang seterusnya iaitu negatif gaya hidup (ijazah). Tempoh Dinasti Abbasiyah telah berakhir pada 1258 AD apabila Baghdad jatuh ke tangan orang Mongol di bawah arahan Hulagu Khan.
Pengagihan Sejarah Abbasiyyah sebagai model di atas, walaupun diiktiraf oleh beberapa kalangan sebagai Eric Hanne-sendiri-tidak berapa tepat, ia boleh memberi kesan kepada alam semula jadi atau gaya kajian moden dinasti Abbasiyah, di mana kebanyakan kajian menumpukan lebih fokus pada tempoh pertama.
LATAR BELAKANG TAMADUN
Untuk beberapa dekad selepas penubuhan di 132H / 750m, Dinasti Abbasiyyah berjaya untuk menyatukan dan mengukuhkan kawalan dalaman ke atas wilayah-wilayah yang mereka kuasai. Era kepimpinan khalifah kedua, Abū Ja `jauh ibn` Muhammad Abdullah ibn al-Mansur (137-158H / 754-775M), menjadi titik yang agak penting dalam proses penstabilan kuasa ini apabila dia telah mengambil dua langkah besar dalam sejarah kepimpinannya. Iaitu: Pertama, menyingkirkan musuh dan calon musuh (Rivals berpotensi dan sebenar) dan juga memadamkan beberapa rintangan tempatan di beberapa kawasan kedaulatan Abbasiyyah; Kedua, meninggalkan Al-Anbar dan Baghdad sebagai ibu kota bangunan baru, yang kemudiannya menjadi lokus aktiviti ekonomi, budaya saintifik dan dunia Islam pada masa itu.
Langkah-langkah penting yang diambil oleh Al-Mansur dan kesan besar yang menyebabkan kepada pembangunan Dinasti Abbasiyyah pada masa akan datang dan kemudian membuat ahli sejarah menganggap sebagai pengasas sebenar Dinasti Abbasiyah (al-al-haqīqi muassis li al-Dawla al-`Abbasiyah).
Selain tokoh politik begitu kuat dan dominan, al-Mansur juga diketahui mempunyai perhatian yang cukup besar kepada sains, atau bahkan dari mudanya sebelum beliau menjadi khalifah. Pergerakan Terjemahan yang kemudiannya menjadi salah satu 'ikon' Abbasid kemajuan dinasti tamadun juga peranan khalifah al-Mansur sebagai pergerakan terjemahan yang pertama diterajui beberapa buku-buku warisan tamadun pra-Islam purba.
Maka gerakan simpan kira (tasnīf) dan kodifikasi (tadwīn) tafsiran sains, hadith, fiqh, sastera dan sejarah mengalami pertumbuhan yang ketara dalam era Al-Mansur juga. Dikatakan bahawa sebelum masa itu, pelajar-pelajar dan sarjana dalam aktiviti saintifik hanya menggunakan lembaran ini tidak tersusun rapi, supaya tidak hairanlah bahawa Al-Qanūji menyebut dengan khusus khalifah al-Mansur sebagai yang pertama yang memberi perhatian yang besar kepada pra purba sains -Islam, setelah sebelum ini telah ditinggalkan oleh khalifah Umayyah.
Tetapi bagaimanapun penting peranan Al-Mansur, kemajuan tamadun yang dicapai oleh dinasti Abbasiyyah sebenarnya tidak datang dari vakum, tetapi mengenai hal yang paling penting adalah buah daripada pengaruh konsep dalam ajaran Islam itu sendiri . Ia juga diiktiraf oleh sesetengah penulis Barat seperti Vartan Gregorian, di dalam bukunya Islam: A Mosaic, Bukan Monolith.
Kesimpulannya adalah, jika dilihat daripada perspektif kajian sejarah tamadun sepadan dengan teori bahawa semangat yang dibawa oleh konsep agama (al-al-Fikrah dīniyyah) adalah Elan penting dan menjadi elemen yang paling penting dalam kebangkitan tamadun.
Di samping itu, satu lagi faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan selanjutnya tamadun Dinasti Abbasiyyah adalah interaksi secara besar-besaran dengan era Abbasiyyah, masyarakat Islam di beberapa kawasan masyarakat yang sebelum ini telah menjadi warisan pusat pemikiran dan tamadun Yunani, seperti Alexandria (Mesir), Syria, dan rantau Asia Barat, terutama orang Persia.
Pendek kata, tidak lama selepas penubuhannya, Dinasti Abbasiyyah dapat dengan cepat mewujudkan kemajuan sains dan tamadun yang Dr Ahmad Shalabi dimanifestasikan dalam tiga sektor iaitu pergerakan penulisan berpintal (Harakat al-tasnīf), kodifikasi dan sistematisasi sains Islam , dan juga kewujudan pergerakan terjemahan (Harakat al-Tarjamah) secara besar-besaran. Selain di atas tiga mata boleh ditambah juga perkembangan sains yang melahirkan tokoh-tokoh legenda saintis yang diiktiraf bukan sahaja di dunia Islam tetapi juga oleh ahli akademik Barat.
PERGERAKAN DALAM TERJEMAHAN
Bercakap mengenai gerakan terjemahan yang berlaku dalam Era Abbasiyyah sebenarnya tidak dapat dipisahkan daripada usaha terjemahan yang sentiasa dijalankan dalam tempoh dinasti Umayyah. Pada masa itu, selepas penaklukan wilayah menembusi besar-besaran di tiga benua, dan pada masa-masa keselamatan politik di sebuah negara yang stabil, usaha terjemahan telah dibuat namun kecil.
Seperti yang diberitahu oleh ahli sejarah, keadaan Khalid ibn Yazid ibn tidak pernah mengarahkan beberapa diimport ahli falsafah Yunani yang hidup di Mesir dan menguasai bahasa Arab untuk menterjemahkan buku-buku Yunani bahasa dan Mesir Purba (Qibti), khususnya berhubung dengan sains perubatan dan kimia, ke dalam bahasa Arab. Di samping itu, semasa `Abdul Malik ibn Marwan dan Al-Walid ibn` Abdul-Malik juga telah dilakukan menterjemahkan Diwan bahasa asal, kedua-dua bahasa Pahlavi-Persia, Yunani dan Mesir Kuno ke dalam bahasa Arab.
Berbeza dengan usaha terjemahan dalam dinasti Umayyah yang skala kecil atau individu, di Era pergerakan terjemahan Abbasiyyah, disokong oleh khalifah yang rata-rata mempunyai kecenderungan sains dan kepentingan dalam pengetahuan Yunani dan Parsi. Khalifah al-Mansur sebagai contohnya, sentiasa menggalakkan ahli-ahli sains daripada pelbagai disiplin dengan tanpa mengira agama atau bangsa mereka, untuk menterjemahkan buku-buku sains, falsafah dan sastera dari bahasa asing ke dalam bahasa Arab. Dalam era Al-Mansur muncul dalam bidang sasterawan seperti penterjemah `Abdullah Ibn Al-Muqaffa` (757 M), Zoroaster yang kemudian memeluk Islam, yang menterjemahkan buku Kalīlah wa Dimnah, dan Hunayn Ibn Ishaq yang menterjemahkan kerja-kerja buku perubatan Hippocrates dan Galen.
Dalam era Harun al-Rashid (170-194 H) intelektual dan saintis yang tinggal lebih di Baghdad. Khalifah-ditubuhkan Bayt al-Hikmah, Seperti akademi saintifik yang menjadi pusat aktiviti saintifik serta bermula daripada penterjemahan perpustakaan penyelidikan. Institusi ini kemudian dikembangkan oleh Al-Ma'mun dan mencapai puncak pada masa itu di bawah tanggungjawab Hunayn Ibn Ishaq. Al-Ma'mun juga menambah sebuah bangunan khas sebagai sebuah balai cerap untuk kajian astronomi ke Bayt al-Hikmah.
Bayt al-Hikmah-dijelmakan sebagai pusat aktiviti intelektual yang tidak dapat ditandingi di mana penyelidikan sains sosial dan sains, termasuk prestasi, astronomi, perubatan, kimia, zoologi, geografi dan lain-lain yang dilakukan. Melalui institusi-institusi ini juga pelbagai buku-buku penting (ummahāt al-kutub), warisan tamadun pra-Islam (Parsi, India dan Yunani), diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Arab, seperti buku-buku Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata dan Brahmagupta. Jadi jangan terkejut jika Philip K. Hitti menyatakan bahawa Bayt al-Hikmah adalah institusi saintifik yang paling penting tamadun manusia yang pernah dibina selepas Library of Alexandria, yang diasaskan sekitar separuh pertama abad ke-SM ketiga. Dengan pergerakan terjemahan ini Baghdad menjadi sebuah bandar yang mengumpul pelbagai kerja-kerja ilmiah yang sangat besar. Pada masa yang sama Baghdad juga bandar yang paling mewah yang besar dan mempunyai penduduk yang paling tinggi mencapai satu juta penduduk.
Populariti Bayt al-Hikmah adalah berterusan sehingga kepimpinan al-Mu `tasim (memerintah 833-842M) dan Al-Wātsiq (memerintah 842-847M), tetapi ia mula tenggelam dan mengalami kemunduran pada masa pemerintahan al-Mutawakkil (847-861M).
Satu perkara yang menarik untuk ambil perhatian bahawa majoriti penterjemah buku-buku kuno ke dalam bahasa Arab berasal dari warga bukan Islam (ahl al-dhimma) sebagai Joanna ibn Māsawayh, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, Ishaq ibn Hunayn, Hubaysh ibn al-A `sam, Thabit ibn al-Sābi'i Qarrah, Yahya ibn al-Bitrīq, Iqlīdis ibn `Imah NA, Zarūbā ibn al-volleyseventeen Mājwah, Najib ibn Ayyub, Qustā ibn Luqa, Astufun ibn Basil, Saliba Ayyub al-Rahawi, from` al dan sami-sami dan lain-lain lagi.
Satu lagi nota yang menarik, bahawa gerakan ini terjemahan bukan sahaja menjadi perhatian kerajaan dan khalifah sahaja, tetapi juga oleh individu-individu dari golongan elit seperti Indonesian Banu yang juga menguruskan satu bahasa dipercayai yang bekerja siang dan malam untuk mereka. Keluarga elit lain diceritakan walaupun sangat berminat dikeluarkan kekayaan membayar bahasa mereka, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Bani al-Munajjim yang berani membayar 500 dinar untuk gaji penterjemah setiap bulan sebagai terjemahan sepenuh masa (li al-wa al-mulāzamah naql).
SAINS-AGAMA KEMAJUAN SAINS
Selain gerakan terjemahan, kemajuan sains dan tamadun zaman Abbasiyyah juga ditandai dengan kemajuan dalam sains Islam, sains sosial dan sains. Dalam bidang ilmu agama, berkata permulaan Era Abbasiyah sistematisasi beberapa cabang sains seperti Tafsir, Hadith dan Fiqh. Terutama sejak tahun 143 Hijrah, para ulama mula menyusun sebuah buku dalam keadaan yang baik sisitematis Muda sains Tafsir, Hadith dan Fiqh.
Di antara ulama yang terkenal ialah Ibn Jurayj (d. 150 AH) yang menulis koleksi hadith di Makkah, Malik ibn Anas (d. 171) yang menulis Al-Muwatta 'itu di Madinah, Al-Awza `i Sham di rantau ini , Ibn Abi `dan Hammad ibn Salamah Urūbah di Basrah, Ma` mar di Yaman, Sufyan al-Tsauri di Kufah, Muhammad Ibn Ishaq (d. 151H) yang menulis buku sejarah (Al-Maghāzi), Sa'ad ibn Al -Layts (d. 175H) dan Abu Hanifah.
Tafsiran Dalam sains tempoh ini menjadi pengetahuan bebas yang berasingan ilmu Hadis. Tempah dalam tafsiran lengkap Al-Fatihah kepada Al-Nas juga mula menulis. Menurut Ibn al-Nadim yang pertama untuk melengkapkan penyediaan tafsiran ini adalah Yahya ibn Ziyad al-Daylamy atau lebih dikenali sebagai Al-Farra. Tetapi melarikan diri daripada Ibn al-Nadim mencatatkan bahawa `Abd al-Razzaq ibn Hammam al-San` ani (d.211 H), sezaman dengan Al-Fara juga telah menyusun buku yang penuh dengan tafsiran yang sama.
Bidang fiqh pada zaman ini juga merupakan rekod sejarah yang penting, di mana angka itu dipanggil empat imam mazdhab fiqh yang hidup di era itu, iaitu Abu Hanifah (w.150 H), Malik ibn Anas (w.179H), Al-Shafi `i (w.204) dan Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241H).
Tidak banyak berbeza dengan pertumbuhan yang dialami oleh ilmu Tafsir dan Fiqh sains, ilmu Hadis juga mengalami tempoh penting penulisan sejarah, terutamanya yang berkaitan dengan hadis Rasulullah saw yang menimbulkan watak-watak yang disebutkan di atas, seperti Ibn Jurayj, Malik ibn Anas, dan al-Rabi ibn `Sabīh (w.160) dan Ibn al-Mubarak (d. 181 H).
Tambahan pula, dalam abad ketiga, satu trend baru muncul dalam bentuk penulisan Musnad hadis Nabi. Di antara orang-orang yang menulis seperti Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, `Ubaydullah ibn Musa al-` Absy al-Kufi, Musaddad bin Musarhad al-Basri, Asad ibn Musa al-Nu `aym Amawi dan Hammad ibn al-Khuzā` i.
Pembangunan menulis hadith yang akan datang, masih dalam era Abbasiyyah, yang bermula pada pertengahan abad ketiga, satu trend baru muncul yang boleh dianggap sebagai generasi yang terbaik menulis sejarah hadith, iaitu kemunculan trend yang didahului penulisan hadith oleh pemisahan fasa penyelidikan dan sahih daripada hadis yang dla `Jika, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Al-Bukhari (d.256), Muslim (d.261), Ibn Majah (d.273), Abu Daud (d 0,275), Al-Tirmidhi (d. 279), dan Al-NASA 'i (d.303).
Disiplin sains yang lain juga mengalami perkembangan yang ketara dalam era Abbasiyyah, ialah sains sejarah, permulaan penulisan yang dilakukan oleh Ibn Ishaq (d. 152) dan kemudiannya diringkaskan oleh Ibn Hisham (d. 218). Tambahan pula, terdapat juga Muhammad ibn `Umar al-Waqidi (d. 207) yang menulis sebuah buku yang berjudul Al-Tarikh al-Kabir dan Al-Maghāzi. Buku pertama yang disenaraikan sebagai hilang, walaupun ia masih dicatatkan oleh ahli sejarah al-Tabari (838-923M) itu. Satu lagi sejarah yang datang seterusnya adalah seperti Muhammad ibn Saad (d.230 H) dengan Al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, dan Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (d.279) yang menulis al-Buldān Futūh.
SAINS DAN TEKNOLOGI KEMAJUAN
Kemajuan yang dicapai oleh umat Islam di zaman Abbasiyyah tidak hanya terhad kepada bidang sains agama atau yang biasa dipanggil `Ulum naqliyah, tetapi juga disertai dengan kemajuan sains, sains dan teknologi (` Ulum aqliyah).
Walaupun diperhatikan, perkembangan sains di dunia Islam yang mendahului perkembangan falsafah sains juga berkembang pesat di era Abbasiyyah. Ini boleh menjadi buah kecenderungan bangsa Arab pada masa itu yang lebih keutamaan kepada menterjemahkan buku-buku sains yang mempunyai implikasi untuk faedah langsung hidup mereka (Pati fi al-atsar hayātihim al-māddi) berbanding dengan buku-buku jika difikirkan (falsafah).
Kemajuan yang dicapai dalam era ini mempunyai banyak sumbangan yang besar kepada tamadun manusia moden dan sejarah ilmu sains hari ini. Dalam matematik, sebagai contoh, terdapat algebra pemula Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi daripada sains. Algoritma, walaupun satu cabang matematik juga diambil dari nama.
Astronomi adalah sains yang mendapat perhatian yang besar dari era Islam dan disokong secara langsung oleh Khalifah Abbasiyah al-Mansur juga sering dirujuk sebagai ahli astronomi. Penyelidikan dalam bidang astronomi oleh umat Islam bermula pada era Al-Mansur apabila Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazāri menterjemahkan buku "Siddhanta" (yang bermaksud pengetahuan melalui Ahad) daripada bahasa Sanskrit ke dalam bahasa Arab.
Dalam era Harun al-Rashid dan Al-Ma'mun beberapa teori astronomi Yunani purba, yang dikaji semula dan dibangunkan lagi. Ahli-ahli astronomi Islam yang popular di era Abbasiyyah, antara lain, Al-Khawarizmi, Ibn Jabir Al-Battani (d. 929), Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (w.1048) dan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (w 0,1274).
Walaupun sains fizik telah dibangunkan oleh Ibn al-Haytsam atau dikenali di Barat dengan tajuk yang Alhazen. Beliau juga memegembangkan teori awal metodologi ilmiyah saintifik melalui eksperimen (ujian dan cubaan). Untuk itu beliau telah diberi gelaran sebagai pengasas sebenar fizik. Ibn al-Haytsam juga dikenali sebagai bapa optik, dan juga sebagai pencipta teori tentang fenomena pelangi dan gerhana.
Dalam bidang kimia era Abbasiyyah, nama biasa seperti Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber atau di Barat) yang menjadi perintis ilmu kimia moden. Di samping itu terdapat Abu Bakar Zakaria al-Razi yang pertama dapat menjelaskan pembuatan asid garam (asid sulfurik) dan alkohol. Dari ahli kimia Muslim ini adalah beberapa sarjana Barat seperti Roger Bacon, yang memperkenalkan kaedah empirikal ke Eropah dan Isaac Newton banyak belajar.
Dalam bidang perubatan datang tokoh-tokoh seperti al-Kindi yang pertama menunjukkan penggunaan aritmetik dan matematik dalam farmakologi dan perubatan. Atau juga Al-Razi yang menemui cacar (cacar), Al-Khawarizmi, Ibnu Sina dan lain-lain. Ia juga disebut sebagai keterangan lain yang menerangkan kemajuan sains perubatan era Abbasiyyah, bahawa pada zaman Khalifah al-Muqtadir Billah (907-932M / 295-390H) terdapat kira-kira 860 orang yang bekerja sebagai doktor.
Selain kemajuan beberapa disiplin saintifik, seperti yang telah diterangkan di atas Islam Era Abbasiyah juga menunjukkan perkembangan di dalam bidang sains sains lain seperti biologi, geografi, seni bina dan lain-lain yang tidak boleh sepenuhnya dijelaskan dalam kertas ini.
Era kegemilangan dinasti Abbasiyyah juga menyatakan ciptaan dan inovasi adalah cara yang amat penting untuk manusia. Antaranya ialah pembangunan teknologi pembuatan kertas. Kertas pertama kali ditemui dan digunakan dengan sangat terhad oleh bangsa China berjaya membangunkan umat Islam dalam Era Abbasiyyah, selepas teknologi pembuatan dikaji oleh tawanan perang dari China yang ditahan selepas tercetusnya perang Talas. Selepas itu, umat Islam berjaya mengembangkan teknologi pembuatan kertas dan kilang kertas ditubuhkan di Samarkand dan Baghdad. Sehingga tahun AD 900 di Baghdad terdapat beratus-ratus pencetak yang menggunakan alat tulis pembina dan penjilidan buku untuk mewujudkan sebuah buku. Perpustakaan awam apabila ia mula muncul, termasuk perpustakaan buku-pinjaman pertama sepanjang sejarah. Dari Baghdad maka teknologi untuk pembuatan kertas Fez dan akhirnya merebak ke Eropah melalui Andalusia pada abad 13m itu.
Ringkasan Penutup
Selepas pembentangan ringkas mengenai sejarah Dinasti Abbasiyyah, terutamanya yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan sains dan tamadun juga tempoh penurunan dan kemusnahan pada kesimpulan yang disediakan, antara lain, bahawa sejarah tamadun Islam, melalui dinasti Abbasiyyah, mempunyai berjaya mencipta tamadun besar yang mampu menunjukkan kemajuan kedua-dua dalam bidang ilmu-ilmu Islam dan sains yang kemudiannya didermakan untuk tamadun manusia dan diwarisi oleh pemegang tampuk tamadun Barat moden.
Elemen paling penting dalam kemajuan tamadun yang dibina oleh Abbasiyah Era Islam adalah al-al-Diniyah Fikrah, yang dalam konteks ini adalah nilai-nilai dan konsep yang menjurus ke arah sumber Islam itu sendiri adalah wahyu. Unsur ini disokong oleh unsur-unsur sokongan lain daripada sumber manusia yang diwakili oleh khalifah dan tokoh-tokoh utama ahli sains pada masa itu, dan masa dan ruang seperti yang terkandung dalam sejarah pelbagai yang terpakai
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Walaupun terdapat banyak perbezaan, banyak yang ahli sejarah membahagikan sejarah tamadun periodisasi Abbasiyah Dinasti yang merupakan kira-kira lima ratus tahun (750-1258 AD / 132-656 AH) ke dalam dua tempoh utama. Tempoh pertama, tahan antara 750-945M / 132-334H tahun, yang pada masa itu dinasti Abbasiyyah mempunyai kuasa politik yang sangat kuat dan kemudian dapat melahirkan kemajuan tamadun yang dipanggil "Golden Era" (Golden Age ). Tetapi tempoh ini juga pernah berkata kemunculan benih penurunan dan kelemahan politik yang berlaku pada akhir zaman ini.
Walaupun tempoh kedua (945-1258M) adalah tempoh masa di mana Dinasti Abbasiyah mengalami kemunduran dgn nyata politik dan kehilangan kuasa khalifah kuasa terhadap beberapa bidang ditambah pula dengan kemunculan negara kecil (duwaylāt), yang mencapai kemerdekaan. Satu lagi ciri tempoh ini masih sisa-sisa halimunan pengaruh era kegemilangan tamadun Islam termaktub dalam pembangunan pelbagai disiplin saintifik (`ulum), pembinaan (` umran), pencapaian kemakmuran, sehingga tahap yang seterusnya iaitu negatif gaya hidup (ijazah). Tempoh Dinasti Abbasiyah telah berakhir pada 1258 AD apabila Baghdad jatuh ke tangan orang Mongol di bawah arahan Hulagu Khan.
Pengagihan Sejarah Abbasiyyah sebagai model di atas, walaupun diiktiraf oleh beberapa kalangan sebagai Eric Hanne-sendiri-tidak berapa tepat, ia boleh memberi kesan kepada alam semula jadi atau gaya kajian moden dinasti Abbasiyah, di mana kebanyakan kajian menumpukan lebih fokus pada tempoh pertama.
LATAR BELAKANG TAMADUN
Untuk beberapa dekad selepas penubuhan di 132H / 750m, Dinasti Abbasiyyah berjaya untuk menyatukan dan mengukuhkan kawalan dalaman ke atas wilayah-wilayah yang mereka kuasai. Era kepimpinan khalifah kedua, Abū Ja `jauh ibn` Muhammad Abdullah ibn al-Mansur (137-158H / 754-775M), menjadi titik yang agak penting dalam proses penstabilan kuasa ini apabila dia telah mengambil dua langkah besar dalam sejarah kepimpinannya. Iaitu: Pertama, menyingkirkan musuh dan calon musuh (Rivals berpotensi dan sebenar) dan juga memadamkan beberapa rintangan tempatan di beberapa kawasan kedaulatan Abbasiyyah; Kedua, meninggalkan Al-Anbar dan Baghdad sebagai ibu kota bangunan baru, yang kemudiannya menjadi lokus aktiviti ekonomi, budaya saintifik dan dunia Islam pada masa itu.
Langkah-langkah penting yang diambil oleh Al-Mansur dan kesan besar yang menyebabkan kepada pembangunan Dinasti Abbasiyyah pada masa akan datang dan kemudian membuat ahli sejarah menganggap sebagai pengasas sebenar Dinasti Abbasiyah (al-al-haqīqi muassis li al-Dawla al-`Abbasiyah).
Selain tokoh politik begitu kuat dan dominan, al-Mansur juga diketahui mempunyai perhatian yang cukup besar kepada sains, atau bahkan dari mudanya sebelum beliau menjadi khalifah. Pergerakan Terjemahan yang kemudiannya menjadi salah satu 'ikon' Abbasid kemajuan dinasti tamadun juga peranan khalifah al-Mansur sebagai pergerakan terjemahan yang pertama diterajui beberapa buku-buku warisan tamadun pra-Islam purba.
Maka gerakan simpan kira (tasnīf) dan kodifikasi (tadwīn) tafsiran sains, hadith, fiqh, sastera dan sejarah mengalami pertumbuhan yang ketara dalam era Al-Mansur juga. Dikatakan bahawa sebelum masa itu, pelajar-pelajar dan sarjana dalam aktiviti saintifik hanya menggunakan lembaran ini tidak tersusun rapi, supaya tidak hairanlah bahawa Al-Qanūji menyebut dengan khusus khalifah al-Mansur sebagai yang pertama yang memberi perhatian yang besar kepada pra purba sains -Islam, setelah sebelum ini telah ditinggalkan oleh khalifah Umayyah.
Tetapi bagaimanapun penting peranan Al-Mansur, kemajuan tamadun yang dicapai oleh dinasti Abbasiyyah sebenarnya tidak datang dari vakum, tetapi mengenai hal yang paling penting adalah buah daripada pengaruh konsep dalam ajaran Islam itu sendiri . Ia juga diiktiraf oleh sesetengah penulis Barat seperti Vartan Gregorian, di dalam bukunya Islam: A Mosaic, Bukan Monolith.
Kesimpulannya adalah, jika dilihat daripada perspektif kajian sejarah tamadun sepadan dengan teori bahawa semangat yang dibawa oleh konsep agama (al-al-Fikrah dīniyyah) adalah Elan penting dan menjadi elemen yang paling penting dalam kebangkitan tamadun.
Di samping itu, satu lagi faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan selanjutnya tamadun Dinasti Abbasiyyah adalah interaksi secara besar-besaran dengan era Abbasiyyah, masyarakat Islam di beberapa kawasan masyarakat yang sebelum ini telah menjadi warisan pusat pemikiran dan tamadun Yunani, seperti Alexandria (Mesir), Syria, dan rantau Asia Barat, terutama orang Persia.
Pendek kata, tidak lama selepas penubuhannya, Dinasti Abbasiyyah dapat dengan cepat mewujudkan kemajuan sains dan tamadun yang Dr Ahmad Shalabi dimanifestasikan dalam tiga sektor iaitu pergerakan penulisan berpintal (Harakat al-tasnīf), kodifikasi dan sistematisasi sains Islam , dan juga kewujudan pergerakan terjemahan (Harakat al-Tarjamah) secara besar-besaran. Selain di atas tiga mata boleh ditambah juga perkembangan sains yang melahirkan tokoh-tokoh legenda saintis yang diiktiraf bukan sahaja di dunia Islam tetapi juga oleh ahli akademik Barat.
PERGERAKAN DALAM TERJEMAHAN
Bercakap mengenai gerakan terjemahan yang berlaku dalam Era Abbasiyyah sebenarnya tidak dapat dipisahkan daripada usaha terjemahan yang sentiasa dijalankan dalam tempoh dinasti Umayyah. Pada masa itu, selepas penaklukan wilayah menembusi besar-besaran di tiga benua, dan pada masa-masa keselamatan politik di sebuah negara yang stabil, usaha terjemahan telah dibuat namun kecil.
Seperti yang diberitahu oleh ahli sejarah, keadaan Khalid ibn Yazid ibn tidak pernah mengarahkan beberapa diimport ahli falsafah Yunani yang hidup di Mesir dan menguasai bahasa Arab untuk menterjemahkan buku-buku Yunani bahasa dan Mesir Purba (Qibti), khususnya berhubung dengan sains perubatan dan kimia, ke dalam bahasa Arab. Di samping itu, semasa `Abdul Malik ibn Marwan dan Al-Walid ibn` Abdul-Malik juga telah dilakukan menterjemahkan Diwan bahasa asal, kedua-dua bahasa Pahlavi-Persia, Yunani dan Mesir Kuno ke dalam bahasa Arab.
Berbeza dengan usaha terjemahan dalam dinasti Umayyah yang skala kecil atau individu, di Era pergerakan terjemahan Abbasiyyah, disokong oleh khalifah yang rata-rata mempunyai kecenderungan sains dan kepentingan dalam pengetahuan Yunani dan Parsi. Khalifah al-Mansur sebagai contohnya, sentiasa menggalakkan ahli-ahli sains daripada pelbagai disiplin dengan tanpa mengira agama atau bangsa mereka, untuk menterjemahkan buku-buku sains, falsafah dan sastera dari bahasa asing ke dalam bahasa Arab. Dalam era Al-Mansur muncul dalam bidang sasterawan seperti penterjemah `Abdullah Ibn Al-Muqaffa` (757 M), Zoroaster yang kemudian memeluk Islam, yang menterjemahkan buku Kalīlah wa Dimnah, dan Hunayn Ibn Ishaq yang menterjemahkan kerja-kerja buku perubatan Hippocrates dan Galen.
Dalam era Harun al-Rashid (170-194 H) intelektual dan saintis yang tinggal lebih di Baghdad. Khalifah-ditubuhkan Bayt al-Hikmah, Seperti akademi saintifik yang menjadi pusat aktiviti saintifik serta bermula daripada penterjemahan perpustakaan penyelidikan. Institusi ini kemudian dikembangkan oleh Al-Ma'mun dan mencapai puncak pada masa itu di bawah tanggungjawab Hunayn Ibn Ishaq. Al-Ma'mun juga menambah sebuah bangunan khas sebagai sebuah balai cerap untuk kajian astronomi ke Bayt al-Hikmah.
Bayt al-Hikmah-dijelmakan sebagai pusat aktiviti intelektual yang tidak dapat ditandingi di mana penyelidikan sains sosial dan sains, termasuk prestasi, astronomi, perubatan, kimia, zoologi, geografi dan lain-lain yang dilakukan. Melalui institusi-institusi ini juga pelbagai buku-buku penting (ummahāt al-kutub), warisan tamadun pra-Islam (Parsi, India dan Yunani), diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Arab, seperti buku-buku Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata dan Brahmagupta. Jadi jangan terkejut jika Philip K. Hitti menyatakan bahawa Bayt al-Hikmah adalah institusi saintifik yang paling penting tamadun manusia yang pernah dibina selepas Library of Alexandria, yang diasaskan sekitar separuh pertama abad ke-SM ketiga. Dengan pergerakan terjemahan ini Baghdad menjadi sebuah bandar yang mengumpul pelbagai kerja-kerja ilmiah yang sangat besar. Pada masa yang sama Baghdad juga bandar yang paling mewah yang besar dan mempunyai penduduk yang paling tinggi mencapai satu juta penduduk.
Populariti Bayt al-Hikmah adalah berterusan sehingga kepimpinan al-Mu `tasim (memerintah 833-842M) dan Al-Wātsiq (memerintah 842-847M), tetapi ia mula tenggelam dan mengalami kemunduran pada masa pemerintahan al-Mutawakkil (847-861M).
Satu perkara yang menarik untuk ambil perhatian bahawa majoriti penterjemah buku-buku kuno ke dalam bahasa Arab berasal dari warga bukan Islam (ahl al-dhimma) sebagai Joanna ibn Māsawayh, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, Ishaq ibn Hunayn, Hubaysh ibn al-A `sam, Thabit ibn al-Sābi'i Qarrah, Yahya ibn al-Bitrīq, Iqlīdis ibn `Imah NA, Zarūbā ibn al-volleyseventeen Mājwah, Najib ibn Ayyub, Qustā ibn Luqa, Astufun ibn Basil, Saliba Ayyub al-Rahawi, from` al dan sami-sami dan lain-lain lagi.
Satu lagi nota yang menarik, bahawa gerakan ini terjemahan bukan sahaja menjadi perhatian kerajaan dan khalifah sahaja, tetapi juga oleh individu-individu dari golongan elit seperti Indonesian Banu yang juga menguruskan satu bahasa dipercayai yang bekerja siang dan malam untuk mereka. Keluarga elit lain diceritakan walaupun sangat berminat dikeluarkan kekayaan membayar bahasa mereka, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Bani al-Munajjim yang berani membayar 500 dinar untuk gaji penterjemah setiap bulan sebagai terjemahan sepenuh masa (li al-wa al-mulāzamah naql).
SAINS-AGAMA KEMAJUAN SAINS
Selain gerakan terjemahan, kemajuan sains dan tamadun zaman Abbasiyyah juga ditandai dengan kemajuan dalam sains Islam, sains sosial dan sains. Dalam bidang ilmu agama, berkata permulaan Era Abbasiyah sistematisasi beberapa cabang sains seperti Tafsir, Hadith dan Fiqh. Terutama sejak tahun 143 Hijrah, para ulama mula menyusun sebuah buku dalam keadaan yang baik sisitematis Muda sains Tafsir, Hadith dan Fiqh.
Di antara ulama yang terkenal ialah Ibn Jurayj (d. 150 AH) yang menulis koleksi hadith di Makkah, Malik ibn Anas (d. 171) yang menulis Al-Muwatta 'itu di Madinah, Al-Awza `i Sham di rantau ini , Ibn Abi `dan Hammad ibn Salamah Urūbah di Basrah, Ma` mar di Yaman, Sufyan al-Tsauri di Kufah, Muhammad Ibn Ishaq (d. 151H) yang menulis buku sejarah (Al-Maghāzi), Sa'ad ibn Al -Layts (d. 175H) dan Abu Hanifah.
Tafsiran Dalam sains tempoh ini menjadi pengetahuan bebas yang berasingan ilmu Hadis. Tempah dalam tafsiran lengkap Al-Fatihah kepada Al-Nas juga mula menulis. Menurut Ibn al-Nadim yang pertama untuk melengkapkan penyediaan tafsiran ini adalah Yahya ibn Ziyad al-Daylamy atau lebih dikenali sebagai Al-Farra. Tetapi melarikan diri daripada Ibn al-Nadim mencatatkan bahawa `Abd al-Razzaq ibn Hammam al-San` ani (d.211 H), sezaman dengan Al-Fara juga telah menyusun buku yang penuh dengan tafsiran yang sama.
Bidang fiqh pada zaman ini juga merupakan rekod sejarah yang penting, di mana angka itu dipanggil empat imam mazdhab fiqh yang hidup di era itu, iaitu Abu Hanifah (w.150 H), Malik ibn Anas (w.179H), Al-Shafi `i (w.204) dan Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241H).
Tidak banyak berbeza dengan pertumbuhan yang dialami oleh ilmu Tafsir dan Fiqh sains, ilmu Hadis juga mengalami tempoh penting penulisan sejarah, terutamanya yang berkaitan dengan hadis Rasulullah saw yang menimbulkan watak-watak yang disebutkan di atas, seperti Ibn Jurayj, Malik ibn Anas, dan al-Rabi ibn `Sabīh (w.160) dan Ibn al-Mubarak (d. 181 H).
Tambahan pula, dalam abad ketiga, satu trend baru muncul dalam bentuk penulisan Musnad hadis Nabi. Di antara orang-orang yang menulis seperti Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, `Ubaydullah ibn Musa al-` Absy al-Kufi, Musaddad bin Musarhad al-Basri, Asad ibn Musa al-Nu `aym Amawi dan Hammad ibn al-Khuzā` i.
Pembangunan menulis hadith yang akan datang, masih dalam era Abbasiyyah, yang bermula pada pertengahan abad ketiga, satu trend baru muncul yang boleh dianggap sebagai generasi yang terbaik menulis sejarah hadith, iaitu kemunculan trend yang didahului penulisan hadith oleh pemisahan fasa penyelidikan dan sahih daripada hadis yang dla `Jika, seperti yang dilakukan oleh Al-Bukhari (d.256), Muslim (d.261), Ibn Majah (d.273), Abu Daud (d 0,275), Al-Tirmidhi (d. 279), dan Al-NASA 'i (d.303).
Disiplin sains yang lain juga mengalami perkembangan yang ketara dalam era Abbasiyyah, ialah sains sejarah, permulaan penulisan yang dilakukan oleh Ibn Ishaq (d. 152) dan kemudiannya diringkaskan oleh Ibn Hisham (d. 218). Tambahan pula, terdapat juga Muhammad ibn `Umar al-Waqidi (d. 207) yang menulis sebuah buku yang berjudul Al-Tarikh al-Kabir dan Al-Maghāzi. Buku pertama yang disenaraikan sebagai hilang, walaupun ia masih dicatatkan oleh ahli sejarah al-Tabari (838-923M) itu. Satu lagi sejarah yang datang seterusnya adalah seperti Muhammad ibn Saad (d.230 H) dengan Al-Tabaqat al-Kubra, dan Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (d.279) yang menulis al-Buldān Futūh.
SAINS DAN TEKNOLOGI KEMAJUAN
Kemajuan yang dicapai oleh umat Islam di zaman Abbasiyyah tidak hanya terhad kepada bidang sains agama atau yang biasa dipanggil `Ulum naqliyah, tetapi juga disertai dengan kemajuan sains, sains dan teknologi (` Ulum aqliyah).
Walaupun diperhatikan, perkembangan sains di dunia Islam yang mendahului perkembangan falsafah sains juga berkembang pesat di era Abbasiyyah. Ini boleh menjadi buah kecenderungan bangsa Arab pada masa itu yang lebih keutamaan kepada menterjemahkan buku-buku sains yang mempunyai implikasi untuk faedah langsung hidup mereka (Pati fi al-atsar hayātihim al-māddi) berbanding dengan buku-buku jika difikirkan (falsafah).
Kemajuan yang dicapai dalam era ini mempunyai banyak sumbangan yang besar kepada tamadun manusia moden dan sejarah ilmu sains hari ini. Dalam matematik, sebagai contoh, terdapat algebra pemula Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi daripada sains. Algoritma, walaupun satu cabang matematik juga diambil dari nama.
Astronomi adalah sains yang mendapat perhatian yang besar dari era Islam dan disokong secara langsung oleh Khalifah Abbasiyah al-Mansur juga sering dirujuk sebagai ahli astronomi. Penyelidikan dalam bidang astronomi oleh umat Islam bermula pada era Al-Mansur apabila Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazāri menterjemahkan buku "Siddhanta" (yang bermaksud pengetahuan melalui Ahad) daripada bahasa Sanskrit ke dalam bahasa Arab.
Dalam era Harun al-Rashid dan Al-Ma'mun beberapa teori astronomi Yunani purba, yang dikaji semula dan dibangunkan lagi. Ahli-ahli astronomi Islam yang popular di era Abbasiyyah, antara lain, Al-Khawarizmi, Ibn Jabir Al-Battani (d. 929), Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (w.1048) dan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (w 0,1274).
Walaupun sains fizik telah dibangunkan oleh Ibn al-Haytsam atau dikenali di Barat dengan tajuk yang Alhazen. Beliau juga memegembangkan teori awal metodologi ilmiyah saintifik melalui eksperimen (ujian dan cubaan). Untuk itu beliau telah diberi gelaran sebagai pengasas sebenar fizik. Ibn al-Haytsam juga dikenali sebagai bapa optik, dan juga sebagai pencipta teori tentang fenomena pelangi dan gerhana.
Dalam bidang kimia era Abbasiyyah, nama biasa seperti Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber atau di Barat) yang menjadi perintis ilmu kimia moden. Di samping itu terdapat Abu Bakar Zakaria al-Razi yang pertama dapat menjelaskan pembuatan asid garam (asid sulfurik) dan alkohol. Dari ahli kimia Muslim ini adalah beberapa sarjana Barat seperti Roger Bacon, yang memperkenalkan kaedah empirikal ke Eropah dan Isaac Newton banyak belajar.
Dalam bidang perubatan datang tokoh-tokoh seperti al-Kindi yang pertama menunjukkan penggunaan aritmetik dan matematik dalam farmakologi dan perubatan. Atau juga Al-Razi yang menemui cacar (cacar), Al-Khawarizmi, Ibnu Sina dan lain-lain. Ia juga disebut sebagai keterangan lain yang menerangkan kemajuan sains perubatan era Abbasiyyah, bahawa pada zaman Khalifah al-Muqtadir Billah (907-932M / 295-390H) terdapat kira-kira 860 orang yang bekerja sebagai doktor.
Selain kemajuan beberapa disiplin saintifik, seperti yang telah diterangkan di atas Islam Era Abbasiyah juga menunjukkan perkembangan di dalam bidang sains sains lain seperti biologi, geografi, seni bina dan lain-lain yang tidak boleh sepenuhnya dijelaskan dalam kertas ini.
Era kegemilangan dinasti Abbasiyyah juga menyatakan ciptaan dan inovasi adalah cara yang amat penting untuk manusia. Antaranya ialah pembangunan teknologi pembuatan kertas. Kertas pertama kali ditemui dan digunakan dengan sangat terhad oleh bangsa China berjaya membangunkan umat Islam dalam Era Abbasiyyah, selepas teknologi pembuatan dikaji oleh tawanan perang dari China yang ditahan selepas tercetusnya perang Talas. Selepas itu, umat Islam berjaya mengembangkan teknologi pembuatan kertas dan kilang kertas ditubuhkan di Samarkand dan Baghdad. Sehingga tahun AD 900 di Baghdad terdapat beratus-ratus pencetak yang menggunakan alat tulis pembina dan penjilidan buku untuk mewujudkan sebuah buku. Perpustakaan awam apabila ia mula muncul, termasuk perpustakaan buku-pinjaman pertama sepanjang sejarah. Dari Baghdad maka teknologi untuk pembuatan kertas Fez dan akhirnya merebak ke Eropah melalui Andalusia pada abad 13m itu.
Ringkasan Penutup
Selepas pembentangan ringkas mengenai sejarah Dinasti Abbasiyyah, terutamanya yang berkaitan dengan perkembangan sains dan tamadun juga tempoh penurunan dan kemusnahan pada kesimpulan yang disediakan, antara lain, bahawa sejarah tamadun Islam, melalui dinasti Abbasiyyah, mempunyai berjaya mencipta tamadun besar yang mampu menunjukkan kemajuan kedua-dua dalam bidang ilmu-ilmu Islam dan sains yang kemudiannya didermakan untuk tamadun manusia dan diwarisi oleh pemegang tampuk tamadun Barat moden.
Elemen paling penting dalam kemajuan tamadun yang dibina oleh Abbasiyah Era Islam adalah al-al-Diniyah Fikrah, yang dalam konteks ini adalah nilai-nilai dan konsep yang menjurus ke arah sumber Islam itu sendiri adalah wahyu. Unsur ini disokong oleh unsur-unsur sokongan lain daripada sumber manusia yang diwakili oleh khalifah dan tokoh-tokoh utama ahli sains pada masa itu, dan masa dan ruang seperti yang terkandung dalam sejarah pelbagai yang terpakai
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The Abbasid Dynasty: The Golden Age of Islamic Civilzation(Search By Firman)
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The Abasid Caliphate, which ruled the Islamic world, oversaw the golden age of
Islamic culture. The dynasty ruled the Islamic Caliphate from 750 to 1258 AD, making it
one of the longest and most influential Islamic dynasties. For most of its early history, it
was the largest empire in the world, and this meant hat it had contact with distant
neighbors such as the Chinese and Indians in the East, and the Byzantines in the West,
alowing it o adopt and synthesize ideas from these cultures.
The Abasid Revolution
The Abasid Dynasty overthrew the preceding Umayad Dynasty, which was
based in Damascus, Syria. The Umayads had become increasingly unpopular,
especialy in the eastern teritories of the caliphate. The Umayads favored Syrian
Arabs over other Muslims and treated mawali, newly converted Muslims, as second- clas citzens. The most numerous group of mawali were the Persians, who lived side- by-side with Arabs in the east who were angry at he favor shown to Syrian Arabs.
Together, they were ripe for rebelion. Other Muslims were angry with the Umayads
for turning the caliphate into a hereditary dynasty. Some believed that a single family
should not hold power, while Shites believed that rue authority belonged to the family
of the Prophet Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali, and the Umayads were not part
of Muhammad’s family.
Al these various groups who were angry with the Umayads united under the
Abasids, who began a rebelion against he Umayads in Persia. The Abasids built a
coaliton of Persian mawali, Eastern Arabs, and Shites. The Abasids were able to
gain Shite suport because they claimed descent from Muhammad through
Muhammad’s uncle Abas. Their descent from Muhammad was not hrough Ali, as
Shites would have prefered, but Shites stil considered the Abasids beter than the
Umayads. A Persian general, Abu Muslim, who suported Abasid claims to power, led the
Abasid armies. His victories alowed the Abasid leader Abul `Abas al-Safah to
enter the Shite-dominated city of Kufa in 748 and declare himself caliph. In 750, the
army of Abu Muslim and al-Safah faced the Umayad Caliph Marwan I at he Batle of
the Zab near the Tigris River. Marwan I was defeated, fled, and was kiled. As-Safah
captured Damascus and slaughtered the remaining members of the Umayad family
(except for one, Abd al-Rahman, who escaped to Spain and continued the Umayad
Dynasty there). The Abasids were the new rulers of the caliphate.
The Early Abasids
The Abasids had led a revolution against he unpopular policies of the
Umayads, but hose who expected major change were disapointed. Under the
second Abasid Caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754–75), it became clear that much of the
Umayad past would be continued. The Abasids maintained the hereditary control of
the caliphate, forming a new dynasty. The aliance with the Shites was short lived, and the Abasids became champions of Suni orthodoxy, upholding the authority of their
family over that of Ali, and continuing the subjugation of the Shites. Even Abu Muslim,
the briliant Persian general who enginered the rise of the Abasids, was demed a
threat and executed. However, the Abasids did prove loyal to their Persian mawali
alies. In fact, Abasid culture would come to be dominated by the legacy of Persian
civilzation. The Abasid court was heavily influenced by Persian customs, and
members of the powerful Persian Barmakid family acted as the advisers of the caliphs
and rivaled them in wealth and power.
One of the earliest, and most important, changes the Abasids made was to
move the capital of the Islamic empire from the old Umayad power base of Damascus
to a new city—Baghdad. Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur on the banks of
the Tigris River. The city was round in shape, and designed from the begining to be a
great capital and the center of the Islamic world. It was built not far from the old Persian
capital of Ctesiphon, and its location reveals the desire of the dynasty to conect itself
to Persian culture.
Baghdad grew quickly with encouragement from the Abasid state, and it was
son the largest city in the world. At Baghdad, the Persian culture that he Umayads
had atempted to supres was now alowed to thrive. Art, poetry, and science
flourished. The Abasids learned from the Chinese (alegedly from Chinese soldiers
captured in batle) the art of making paper. Cheap and durable, paper became an
important material for spreading literature and knowledge.
Islamic Golden Age
The fith caliph of the Abasid dynasty, Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), is
remembered as one of history’s greatest patrons of the arts and sciences. Under his
rule, Baghdad became the world’s most important center for science, philosophy,
medicine, and education. The masive size of the caliphate meant hat it had contact
and shared borders with many distant empires, so scholars at Baghdad could colect,
translate, and expand upon the knowledge of other civilzations, such as the Egyptians,
Persians, Indians, Chinese, Greks, Romans, and Byzantines. The sucesors of
Harun al-Rashid, especialy his son al-Ma’mun (r. 813–83), continued his policies of
suporting artists, scientists, and scholars. Al-Ma’mun founded the Bayt al-Hikma, the
House of Wisdom, in Baghdad. A library, an instiute for translators, and in many ways
an early form of university, the House of Wisdom hosted Muslim and non-Muslim
scholars who sought o translate and gather the cumulative knowledge of human history
in one place, and in one language—Arabic. At he House of Wisdom, important ideas from around the world came together.
The introduction of Indian numerals, which have become standard in the Islamic and
Western worlds, greatly aided in mathematic and scientifc discovery. Scholars such as
Al-Kindi revolutionized mathematics and synthesized Grek philosophy with Islamic
thought. Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur—among many other scholars—made
important contributions to geometry and astronomy. Al-Khwarizmi, expanding upon
Grek mathematical concepts, developed Algebra (the word “algorithm” is a coruption of his name). Ibn al-Haytham made important contributions to the field of optics, and is
generaly held to have developed the concept of the scientifc method.
A number of very practical inovations tok place, especialy in the field of
Linkagriculture. Improved methods of irigation alowed more land to be cultivated, and new
types of mils and turbines were used to reduce the ned for labor (though slavery was
stil very common in both the countryside and cites). Crops and farming techniques
were adopted from far-flung neighboring cultures. Rice, coton, and sugar were taken
from India, citrus fruits from China, and sorghum from Africa. Thanks to Islamic famers,
these crops eventualy made their way to the West. Such Islamic inovation would
continue, even as the Abasid government fel into chaos.
A Long and Slow Decline
Due to several very capable caliphs and their advisers, the Abasid Caliphate
thrived through the early ninth century, despite the major chalenges of ruling a masive
and multiethnic empire. Besides being a great patron of the arts and sciences, Harun
al-Rashid also brought he Abasid Caliphate to its high point. Stil, he had to deal with
revolts in Persia and North Africa, and he removed from power the Persian Barmakid
family, the source of many great advisers (suposedly after the adviser Ja’far
impregnated the caliph’s sister, though probably because al-Rashid feared their power
would eclipse his own). Al-Rashid’s son, Caliph al-Ma’mun not only continued his
father’s patronage by establishing the House of Wisdom, but he made a number of
important independent inovations.
Al-Ma’mun adopted the radical Mu'tazil theology, which was influenced by Grek
philosophy and held that God could be understod through rational inquiry, and that
belief and practice should be subject o reason. He established the mihna, an
inquisiton in which the adherence of scholars and oficials to Mu'tazil theology was
tested, and they could be imprisoned or even kiled if they did not folow the theology.
As a result, al-Ma’mun’s reign saw a growing division betwen the Isalmic sovereign
and the Isalmic people. This division was exacerbated by his creation of an army of
Central Asian soldiers loyal only to him. During al-Ma’mun’s reign, the provincial
governors, caled emirs, became increasingly independent. The governor of Persia set
up his own dynasty and ruled as a king, though he continued to recognize the Abasid
caliph. This trend of impendent governors would continue, causing major problems for
the caliphate.
After the caliphate of al-Ma’mun, Abasid power began to noticeably decline. The cost of runing a masive empire and maintaining a large bureaucracy required
steady revenues, and as the authority of the caliphate diminished it was able to colect
fewer taxes. In order to stabilze the state finances, the caliphs granted tax-farms to
governors and miltary commanders. These governors, with their own trops and
revenue bases, son proved independent-minded and disloyal.
The caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 83–842) furthered the gap betwen the caliph and his
people. Expanding on al-Ma’mun’s new army, he created his own miltary force of slave
soldiers caled ghilman (later know as “Mamluks”). As the elite guard of the caliph,
these slaves began acting superior to the people of Baghdad, which inspired anger
led to riots. Instead of trying to difuse the situation, al-Mu’tasim simply moved the
capital away from Baghdad and setled in Samara, 60 miles to the north. Away from
the bulk of their subjects who lived in Baghdad, the caliphs became insulated from the
problems of their empire.
Increasingly, the caliph’s soldiers controled Samaria, turning the caliph into litle
more than a pupet. When a caliph was not pliant, they simply kiled him. Al-Muwafaq,
the brother of caliph al-Mu`tamid (r. 870–892), tried to change this. Acting as his
brother’s regent, he had the caliph move the capital back to Baghdad, and from there al- Muwafaq guided the caliphate to new prosperity and defeated the Zanj Rebelion, an
uprising of African slaves that posed a major threat o the caliphate. Thanks to al- Muwafaq, Abasid power gained a new lease on life. However, decline began anew under the reign of al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932), who
was raised to the throne at he age of thirten by members of the court who knew they
could control him. For al-Muqtadir’s long, twenty-five-year reign, he was to weak to do
anything but act as a tol of various court factions. Under his caliphate, teritory after
teritory broke fre of Abasid rule. By the end, Abasid authority extended hardly
beyond Baghdad. Al-Muqtadir was eventualy kiled by city guards after he bankrupted
the state to the point where he could not even pay their salaries. Al-Muqtadir’s son, al-Radi (r. 934–940) is often considered the last caliph to
exercise any real authority. He tried to raise a powerful governor of Iraq who would hold
power over al the other independent emirs. Thus, al-Radi created the tile amir al- umara, “emir of emirs,” for the governor of Iraq. This plan backfired, however, because
the tile efectively invested supreme authority in its holder, leaving the caliph simply as
a figurehead. The Shite Buyids son tok the tile and held it as a hereditary positon, becoming the de facto rulers of Iraq. From this point on, the Abasid caliphs became litle more than religious
figureheads. In the mid-1th century, the Buyids were ousted by the Suni Seljuq
Turks, who conquered Iran, Iraq, Syria, and most of Asia Minor, forming a new and
vibrant Islamic Empire. The Seljuqs continued to ke p the Abasid caliph as the tiular
ruler while exercising true authority over the empire as sultans.
The End of the Abasids
When the Seljuq sultanate colapsed in the twelfth century, an oportunity
presented itself or Caliph al-Nasir (r. 180–125) to atempt o restore Abasid power
in Iraq. His long reign of orty-seven years alowed him ample time to reconquer
Mesopotamia and further develop Baghdad as a center of learning. His chief rival was
the Sultanate of Khwarezm, which ruled Persia. Suposedly, al-Nasir apealed to the
Mongols, an expanding central-Asian nomad empire, for help against Khwarezm. Under al-Nasir’s les competent sucesors, this backfired disastrously. The Mongols
completely overan Khwarezm and then turned their atention to Baghdad. The Mongols sem to have wanted to rule, as the Buyids and Seljuqs before
them, by holding real miltary power but alowing the Abasid caliph symbolic authority. Caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 1242–1258), however, refused to acknowledge their authority and
ofered these non-Muslims only insults and threats. Faced with Mongol invasion, he did litle to prepare, and the Mongol hordes son surounded Baghdad. They captured the
city in 1258 and sacked it. They trampled the caliph to death, and completely destroyed
the city. They kiled somewhere betwen 10,00 and a milion people, destroyed al
the boks of the House of Wisdom and other libraries, burned down al the great
monuments of the city, and left Baghdad a smoldering ruin. This marks the end of the
Abasid caliphate of Baghdad, and the abrupt end of the Islamic golden age. The Abasid line was restablished in 1261, in Egypt. The sultans of Egypt
apointed an Abasid caliph in Cairo, but hese Egyptian caliphs were even more
symbolic than the late caliphs had ben in Baghdad, and were simply used to legitmize
the power of the sultans. The authority of these caliphs extended strictly to religious
maters. Stil, the Egypt-based period of the Abasid dynasty lasted over 250 years.
In 1517, the Otoman Empire conquered Egypt. The last Abasid caliph, al- Mutawakil I, was forced to surender al his authority to the Otoman Sultan Selim I. This was the end of seven-and-a-half centuries of Abasid history. However, under the
Otoman rulers the caliphate was once again weded to a powerful Islamic Empire,
which exercised true authority in the Muslim world.
Summary:
Link
The Abasid Caliphate, which ruled the Islamic world, oversaw the golden age of
Islamic culture. The dynasty ruled the Islamic Caliphate from 750 to 1258 AD, making it
one of the longest and most influential Islamic dynasties. For most of its early history, it
was the largest empire in the world, and this meant hat it had contact with distant
neighbors such as the Chinese and Indians in the East, and the Byzantines in the West,
alowing it o adopt and synthesize ideas from these cultures.
The Abasid Revolution
The Abasid Dynasty overthrew the preceding Umayad Dynasty, which was
based in Damascus, Syria. The Umayads had become increasingly unpopular,
especialy in the eastern teritories of the caliphate. The Umayads favored Syrian
Arabs over other Muslims and treated mawali, newly converted Muslims, as second- clas citzens. The most numerous group of mawali were the Persians, who lived side- by-side with Arabs in the east who were angry at he favor shown to Syrian Arabs.
Together, they were ripe for rebelion. Other Muslims were angry with the Umayads
for turning the caliphate into a hereditary dynasty. Some believed that a single family
should not hold power, while Shites believed that rue authority belonged to the family
of the Prophet Muhammad through his son-in-law Ali, and the Umayads were not part
of Muhammad’s family.
Al these various groups who were angry with the Umayads united under the
Abasids, who began a rebelion against he Umayads in Persia. The Abasids built a
coaliton of Persian mawali, Eastern Arabs, and Shites. The Abasids were able to
gain Shite suport because they claimed descent from Muhammad through
Muhammad’s uncle Abas. Their descent from Muhammad was not hrough Ali, as
Shites would have prefered, but Shites stil considered the Abasids beter than the
Umayads. A Persian general, Abu Muslim, who suported Abasid claims to power, led the
Abasid armies. His victories alowed the Abasid leader Abul `Abas al-Safah to
enter the Shite-dominated city of Kufa in 748 and declare himself caliph. In 750, the
army of Abu Muslim and al-Safah faced the Umayad Caliph Marwan I at he Batle of
the Zab near the Tigris River. Marwan I was defeated, fled, and was kiled. As-Safah
captured Damascus and slaughtered the remaining members of the Umayad family
(except for one, Abd al-Rahman, who escaped to Spain and continued the Umayad
Dynasty there). The Abasids were the new rulers of the caliphate.
The Early Abasids
The Abasids had led a revolution against he unpopular policies of the
Umayads, but hose who expected major change were disapointed. Under the
second Abasid Caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754–75), it became clear that much of the
Umayad past would be continued. The Abasids maintained the hereditary control of
the caliphate, forming a new dynasty. The aliance with the Shites was short lived, and the Abasids became champions of Suni orthodoxy, upholding the authority of their
family over that of Ali, and continuing the subjugation of the Shites. Even Abu Muslim,
the briliant Persian general who enginered the rise of the Abasids, was demed a
threat and executed. However, the Abasids did prove loyal to their Persian mawali
alies. In fact, Abasid culture would come to be dominated by the legacy of Persian
civilzation. The Abasid court was heavily influenced by Persian customs, and
members of the powerful Persian Barmakid family acted as the advisers of the caliphs
and rivaled them in wealth and power.
One of the earliest, and most important, changes the Abasids made was to
move the capital of the Islamic empire from the old Umayad power base of Damascus
to a new city—Baghdad. Baghdad was founded in 762 by al-Mansur on the banks of
the Tigris River. The city was round in shape, and designed from the begining to be a
great capital and the center of the Islamic world. It was built not far from the old Persian
capital of Ctesiphon, and its location reveals the desire of the dynasty to conect itself
to Persian culture.
Baghdad grew quickly with encouragement from the Abasid state, and it was
son the largest city in the world. At Baghdad, the Persian culture that he Umayads
had atempted to supres was now alowed to thrive. Art, poetry, and science
flourished. The Abasids learned from the Chinese (alegedly from Chinese soldiers
captured in batle) the art of making paper. Cheap and durable, paper became an
important material for spreading literature and knowledge.
Islamic Golden Age
The fith caliph of the Abasid dynasty, Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), is
remembered as one of history’s greatest patrons of the arts and sciences. Under his
rule, Baghdad became the world’s most important center for science, philosophy,
medicine, and education. The masive size of the caliphate meant hat it had contact
and shared borders with many distant empires, so scholars at Baghdad could colect,
translate, and expand upon the knowledge of other civilzations, such as the Egyptians,
Persians, Indians, Chinese, Greks, Romans, and Byzantines. The sucesors of
Harun al-Rashid, especialy his son al-Ma’mun (r. 813–83), continued his policies of
suporting artists, scientists, and scholars. Al-Ma’mun founded the Bayt al-Hikma, the
House of Wisdom, in Baghdad. A library, an instiute for translators, and in many ways
an early form of university, the House of Wisdom hosted Muslim and non-Muslim
scholars who sought o translate and gather the cumulative knowledge of human history
in one place, and in one language—Arabic. At he House of Wisdom, important ideas from around the world came together.
The introduction of Indian numerals, which have become standard in the Islamic and
Western worlds, greatly aided in mathematic and scientifc discovery. Scholars such as
Al-Kindi revolutionized mathematics and synthesized Grek philosophy with Islamic
thought. Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur—among many other scholars—made
important contributions to geometry and astronomy. Al-Khwarizmi, expanding upon
Grek mathematical concepts, developed Algebra (the word “algorithm” is a coruption of his name). Ibn al-Haytham made important contributions to the field of optics, and is
generaly held to have developed the concept of the scientifc method.
A number of very practical inovations tok place, especialy in the field of
Linkagriculture. Improved methods of irigation alowed more land to be cultivated, and new
types of mils and turbines were used to reduce the ned for labor (though slavery was
stil very common in both the countryside and cites). Crops and farming techniques
were adopted from far-flung neighboring cultures. Rice, coton, and sugar were taken
from India, citrus fruits from China, and sorghum from Africa. Thanks to Islamic famers,
these crops eventualy made their way to the West. Such Islamic inovation would
continue, even as the Abasid government fel into chaos.
A Long and Slow Decline
Due to several very capable caliphs and their advisers, the Abasid Caliphate
thrived through the early ninth century, despite the major chalenges of ruling a masive
and multiethnic empire. Besides being a great patron of the arts and sciences, Harun
al-Rashid also brought he Abasid Caliphate to its high point. Stil, he had to deal with
revolts in Persia and North Africa, and he removed from power the Persian Barmakid
family, the source of many great advisers (suposedly after the adviser Ja’far
impregnated the caliph’s sister, though probably because al-Rashid feared their power
would eclipse his own). Al-Rashid’s son, Caliph al-Ma’mun not only continued his
father’s patronage by establishing the House of Wisdom, but he made a number of
important independent inovations.
Al-Ma’mun adopted the radical Mu'tazil theology, which was influenced by Grek
philosophy and held that God could be understod through rational inquiry, and that
belief and practice should be subject o reason. He established the mihna, an
inquisiton in which the adherence of scholars and oficials to Mu'tazil theology was
tested, and they could be imprisoned or even kiled if they did not folow the theology.
As a result, al-Ma’mun’s reign saw a growing division betwen the Isalmic sovereign
and the Isalmic people. This division was exacerbated by his creation of an army of
Central Asian soldiers loyal only to him. During al-Ma’mun’s reign, the provincial
governors, caled emirs, became increasingly independent. The governor of Persia set
up his own dynasty and ruled as a king, though he continued to recognize the Abasid
caliph. This trend of impendent governors would continue, causing major problems for
the caliphate.
After the caliphate of al-Ma’mun, Abasid power began to noticeably decline. The cost of runing a masive empire and maintaining a large bureaucracy required
steady revenues, and as the authority of the caliphate diminished it was able to colect
fewer taxes. In order to stabilze the state finances, the caliphs granted tax-farms to
governors and miltary commanders. These governors, with their own trops and
revenue bases, son proved independent-minded and disloyal.
The caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 83–842) furthered the gap betwen the caliph and his
people. Expanding on al-Ma’mun’s new army, he created his own miltary force of slave
soldiers caled ghilman (later know as “Mamluks”). As the elite guard of the caliph,
these slaves began acting superior to the people of Baghdad, which inspired anger
led to riots. Instead of trying to difuse the situation, al-Mu’tasim simply moved the
capital away from Baghdad and setled in Samara, 60 miles to the north. Away from
the bulk of their subjects who lived in Baghdad, the caliphs became insulated from the
problems of their empire.
Increasingly, the caliph’s soldiers controled Samaria, turning the caliph into litle
more than a pupet. When a caliph was not pliant, they simply kiled him. Al-Muwafaq,
the brother of caliph al-Mu`tamid (r. 870–892), tried to change this. Acting as his
brother’s regent, he had the caliph move the capital back to Baghdad, and from there al- Muwafaq guided the caliphate to new prosperity and defeated the Zanj Rebelion, an
uprising of African slaves that posed a major threat o the caliphate. Thanks to al- Muwafaq, Abasid power gained a new lease on life. However, decline began anew under the reign of al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932), who
was raised to the throne at he age of thirten by members of the court who knew they
could control him. For al-Muqtadir’s long, twenty-five-year reign, he was to weak to do
anything but act as a tol of various court factions. Under his caliphate, teritory after
teritory broke fre of Abasid rule. By the end, Abasid authority extended hardly
beyond Baghdad. Al-Muqtadir was eventualy kiled by city guards after he bankrupted
the state to the point where he could not even pay their salaries. Al-Muqtadir’s son, al-Radi (r. 934–940) is often considered the last caliph to
exercise any real authority. He tried to raise a powerful governor of Iraq who would hold
power over al the other independent emirs. Thus, al-Radi created the tile amir al- umara, “emir of emirs,” for the governor of Iraq. This plan backfired, however, because
the tile efectively invested supreme authority in its holder, leaving the caliph simply as
a figurehead. The Shite Buyids son tok the tile and held it as a hereditary positon, becoming the de facto rulers of Iraq. From this point on, the Abasid caliphs became litle more than religious
figureheads. In the mid-1th century, the Buyids were ousted by the Suni Seljuq
Turks, who conquered Iran, Iraq, Syria, and most of Asia Minor, forming a new and
vibrant Islamic Empire. The Seljuqs continued to ke p the Abasid caliph as the tiular
ruler while exercising true authority over the empire as sultans.
The End of the Abasids
When the Seljuq sultanate colapsed in the twelfth century, an oportunity
presented itself or Caliph al-Nasir (r. 180–125) to atempt o restore Abasid power
in Iraq. His long reign of orty-seven years alowed him ample time to reconquer
Mesopotamia and further develop Baghdad as a center of learning. His chief rival was
the Sultanate of Khwarezm, which ruled Persia. Suposedly, al-Nasir apealed to the
Mongols, an expanding central-Asian nomad empire, for help against Khwarezm. Under al-Nasir’s les competent sucesors, this backfired disastrously. The Mongols
completely overan Khwarezm and then turned their atention to Baghdad. The Mongols sem to have wanted to rule, as the Buyids and Seljuqs before
them, by holding real miltary power but alowing the Abasid caliph symbolic authority. Caliph al-Mu`tasim (r. 1242–1258), however, refused to acknowledge their authority and
ofered these non-Muslims only insults and threats. Faced with Mongol invasion, he did litle to prepare, and the Mongol hordes son surounded Baghdad. They captured the
city in 1258 and sacked it. They trampled the caliph to death, and completely destroyed
the city. They kiled somewhere betwen 10,00 and a milion people, destroyed al
the boks of the House of Wisdom and other libraries, burned down al the great
monuments of the city, and left Baghdad a smoldering ruin. This marks the end of the
Abasid caliphate of Baghdad, and the abrupt end of the Islamic golden age. The Abasid line was restablished in 1261, in Egypt. The sultans of Egypt
apointed an Abasid caliph in Cairo, but hese Egyptian caliphs were even more
symbolic than the late caliphs had ben in Baghdad, and were simply used to legitmize
the power of the sultans. The authority of these caliphs extended strictly to religious
maters. Stil, the Egypt-based period of the Abasid dynasty lasted over 250 years.
In 1517, the Otoman Empire conquered Egypt. The last Abasid caliph, al- Mutawakil I, was forced to surender al his authority to the Otoman Sultan Selim I. This was the end of seven-and-a-half centuries of Abasid history. However, under the
Otoman rulers the caliphate was once again weded to a powerful Islamic Empire,
which exercised true authority in the Muslim world.
Summary:
- The Abasids came to power in a rebelion against he Umayads. Though they built a coaliton of various forces unhapy with the Umayads, once the Abasids were in power they continued many Umayad policies.
- One thing that distinguished the Abasids from the Umayads was their embrace of Persian culture. They moved the capital to a new city, Baghdad, close to the old Persian capital.
- Under the Abasids, Baghdad became the largest and most cultured city in the world. Caliph Harun al-Rashid sponsored art, literature, and science there, and his son al-Ma’mun created the House of Wisdom, where knowledge from around the world was translated into Arabic.
- Thanks to these policies, the Abasids oversaw an Islamic golden age in which the learning of many civilzations was preserved and expanded upon.
- Slowly, Abasid power weakened in the face of independent governors, caled emirs, and a miltary that controled the caliphs.
- By the time of Caliph al-Radi (r. 934–940), Abasid power was mostly limited to Baghdad. Al-Radi created the tile of Emir of Emirs to check the power of the various independent emirs, but his only diminished the authority of the caliph and alowed the Emir of Emirs to become the true ruler of the caliphate.
- The Abasids became litle more than figureheads, until the reign of caliph al- Nasir (r. 180–125), who reaserted power. But alas, his sucesors were not as sucesful, and the Abasid Empire was wiped out by the Mongols, who sacked Baghdad.
- After this, the Abasid caliphs continued to rule from Cairo as religious figureheads. The Abasid line of caliphs ended when Egypt was conquered by the Otomans, and the caliphate was claimed by the Otoman sultan.
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